Charles I & Philip II: Spanish Empire’s Rise and Conflicts
Charles I (1516-1556)
In 1516, Ferdinand II of Aragon died. Due to his daughter Joanna’s inability to reign, she was succeeded by her son, Charles I of Spain, who would also become Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire. He inherited vast territories from his paternal grandparents. However, the title of Holy Roman Emperor was not hereditary. Charles had to convene the Cortes (parliaments) in Castile, Aragon, and Catalonia to gather resources to secure his election. This sparked the Revolt of the Castilian Communities. The Comuneros demanded:
- A limitation of royal power
- The removal of foreign nobles from the Spanish courts
- Respect for privileges
- A reduction of taxes
- Greater powers for the Cortes
The war lasted several years, but the Comuneros were ultimately defeated at the Battle of Villalar in 1521, and their leaders were executed. This reaffirmed the power of the King of Castile. The revolt was primarily an urban and political movement.
Simultaneously, in Valencia and Mallorca, the Revolt of the Germanias broke out. This was a more independent movement of commoners. Artisans, farmers, and members of the lower clergy in cities rose against the feudal lords and the Moors. They demanded the abolition of aristocratic privileges and greater representation in the guilds. This movement, with its social and rural character, was also suppressed, and its leaders were executed.
Despite these victories, which strengthened royal power by reducing municipal autonomy and solidifying the alliance between the monarch and the nobility, Charles I’s rule was not reinforced on the international stage. The struggle between Christians and Protestants in Europe proved challenging. Frustrated by this situation and the failure of his imperial vision, Charles I abdicated in Brussels in 1556. He left Germany to his brother Ferdinand and the rest of the empire to his son, Philip II.
Philip II (1556-1598)
Philip II inherited part of his father’s empire. His main objectives were:
- To fight for hegemony in Europe
- To protect his territorial heritage
- To defend Catholicism against Protestants and Muslims
He shifted the focus from a universal empire to a Hispanic monarchy, centered in Castile and financed by resources from the Americas. His government was a clear example of centralization and absolutism.
In domestic policy, Philip II pursued the Hispanization of his kingdoms. He intensified the Counter-Reformation, targeting Lutherans and other minorities, and strengthened the Inquisition. This increased political and religious authoritarianism led to rebellions, such as the Morisco Revolt in the Alpujarras in 1568 and the Foral Rebellion of Aragon, where he eliminated the institution of the Justice of Aragon.
In foreign policy, his main aspirations were European hegemony and the defense of Catholicism. To achieve these, he:
- Fought against the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571
- Participated in the revolt of the Netherlands
- Launched the Spanish Armada against England, which was destroyed in 1588
- Fought against France at the Battle of San Quentin
- Annexed Portugal
- Initiated the exploration of the Pacific
Although successful in some aspects, this policy incurred a high economic cost that burdened the middle and lower classes.
The Iberian Union
Philip II achieved the long-held aspiration of the Catholic Monarchs for political unity through marriage. When King Sebastian of Portugal died childless in 1578, there were two main candidates for the throne: Philip II, through his maternal line, and the illegitimate Don Antonio. The popular classes supported Don Antonio, while the nobility backed Philip II. He used both the army and diplomacy to secure the throne. In 1581, at the Cortes of Tomar, Philip II was recognized as King of Portugal. In return, he promised to respect Portuguese laws, customs, and autonomy, and to refrain from imposing the Spanish army in Portugal. This union also brought a significant territorial expansion, incorporating Portuguese overseas possessions in Brazil, Africa, Southeast Asia, and India.