Charles V, Philip II: Rebellions and Iberian Unity
Government of Charles V and the Germanías
The reign of King Charles I coincided with the outbreak of significant revolts in his kingdoms: Castile and Valencia.
The Revolt of the Comuneros in Castile
This revolt was initiated by Castilian cities against the king’s government. The reasons included growing concerns about the interests of Castile being overshadowed by European affairs. This was evident in several ways: the control of senior positions by Flemish individuals, special tax requests to fund the imperial election debt, and facilitating wool exports to Flanders. The revolt erupted when city representatives in the Cortes, having approved extraordinary taxes, returned to their cities and faced popular anger. Local governments were replaced by Comunidades, direct representatives formed by artisans, gentry, and lower clergy.
The Comuneros demanded the king’s return to Castile, a ban on the removal of precious metals from the kingdom, the exclusion of foreigners from administration, and a greater role for the Cortes in governing the realm.
The conflict spread to the countryside, where peasants revolted against the abuses of the high nobility. This prompted the nobility to support the king in suppressing the revolt. Ultimately, the Comuneros were defeated in the Battle of Villalar.
The Germanías in Valencia
The revolt began when artisans in Valencia requested permission to arm themselves and form a Germania to defend against Berber pirate attacks. The agermanados soon used force to oppose the nobility and established a new government controlled by popular classes. The revolt spread to other cities and domains, prompting the nobility to join forces with the king to defeat the agermanados.
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II
Under Philip II, the empire inherited from his father increasingly took on a Hispanic character. This was reflected in the establishment of a permanent court in Madrid and the king’s extended residence in Castile. Philip II faced three major challenges related to the interests of his kingdoms:
The Revolt of the Netherlands
The revolt in the Netherlands stemmed from the spread of Protestantism and the Flemish elites’ rejection of the king’s tax burden and authoritarian rule. The persecution of Protestants triggered a general revolt. After harsh repression, the Netherlands were divided into two areas:
- The northern provinces, where Protestantism was dominant.
- The southern Catholic provinces, which eventually reached an agreement and returned to Philip II’s rule.
The War Against the Turks
In alliance with Venice and the Pope, Philip II’s forces achieved victory at the Battle of Lepanto. Lepanto hindered Turkish expansion, although it did not eliminate piracy.
The War Against England
The conflict with England arose from Queen Elizabeth I’s adoption of Protestantism, England’s support for rebels in the Netherlands, and English piracy against ships from the Americas. Philip II decided to invade England with a Grand Armada, but the attempt failed.
Iberian Unity
During Philip II’s reign, the Iberian Peninsula was unified with the incorporation of Portugal into the Hispanic monarchy. Following the death of the King of Portugal, Philip II asserted his claim to the throne. Although his candidacy had considerable support, some cities and noble families did not accept him. Philip II intervened militarily, invading Portugal. He was ultimately proclaimed King of Portugal and recognized by the Portuguese Cortes. The addition of Portugal (which retained its own laws) expanded his vast empire in America, Africa, and Asia, solidifying Philip II as the most powerful monarch of his time and accentuating the Hispanic character of his empire.