Chilean Independence Process and Political Evolution
The Enlightenment and its Impact on Chilean Independence
Europe
The European Enlightenment, an intellectual movement of the 18th century, questioned the existing societal order. It emphasized reason as the foundation for understanding reality and advocated for popular sovereignty, challenging the prevailing absolute monarchies. The Enlightenment championed equality and freedom as fundamental societal principles. These ideas spread to the Americas, influencing Creole elites and contributing to the critique of Spanish colonial rule.
France
The French Revolution, ending the absolute monarchy in France, put Enlightenment ideals of Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity into practice. This complex and tumultuous process served as a precedent for the Creole elite, inspiring both hope for self-governance and fear of potential extremism. The ideals of the revolution, rather than the revolution itself, became a guiding force in the post-independence organization of Chile.
United States
The independence of the thirteen British colonies in North America from England in 1776, resulting in the establishment of the United States as an independent republic, further fueled the flames of liberation. The ideas enshrined in the U.S. Constitution reflected the legacy of the Enlightenment. However, the U.S. approach towards the emancipation of the Spanish colonies was cautious, marked by observation and delayed support until their independence was secured.
Spain
Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion of Spain in 1808, following his conquests in Italy and Portugal, imprisoned King Ferdinand VII and triggered a resistance movement. This movement drew upon medieval traditions of popular sovereignty, asserting that sovereignty resided in the people and should be exercised by them in the absence of the king. Governing boards were established throughout Spain. In the Americas, this sparked both loyalty to the monarch and the unprecedented possibility of self-governance.
Stages of Chilean Independence
Old Country (1810-1814)
This initial phase was characterized by uncertainty regarding the necessity of complete independence. The majority remained loyal to King Ferdinand VII. Key developments included the creation of the first national governing board, the establishment of national emblems, and the drafting of a constitutional regulation in 1812. The first ruling junta declared its continued allegiance to the captive monarch. Opinion leaders during this period included Manuel de Salas, Juan Martínez de Rozas, José Miguel Carrera, and Bernardo O’Higgins.
Reconquista (1814-1817)
The Spanish attempted to reassert control over their colonies. The idea of emancipation spread to the broader population, and the need for complete independence gained momentum. Patriotic sentiment fueled guerrilla warfare, and the Liberation Army was organized. Opinion leaders during this period included Manuel Rodríguez, Bernardo O’Higgins, and José Miguel Carrera.
Patria Nueva (1817-1823)
This period witnessed the consolidation of the independence process and the search for a political structure for the new state. The Chilean Declaration of Independence was formally proclaimed, and Spanish forces were definitively expelled from Chilean territory. The constitutions of 1817 and 1822 established Chile as an independent republic. Titles of nobility and birthright privileges were abolished. However, the social structure largely remained unchanged despite O’Higgins’ reform efforts. Opinion leaders included Bernardo O’Higgins and Juan Martínez de Rozas.
Political Factions in Post-Independence Chile
The Pelucones
This conservative faction, named for their rejection of the colonial-era wig, consisted of landowners and Catholics. They opposed radical reforms and sought a government dominated by their elite class. They were opposed to the rule of individual strongmen.
Liberals (Pipiolos)
This group of young Creole aristocrats aimed to break with the Spanish past. Influenced by European liberalism, they advocated for anticlericalism and various freedoms.
The O’Higginistas
This small faction sought the return of Bernardo O’Higgins to power.
The Estanqueros
Led by businessman Diego Portales, this pragmatic group sought to end political and economic instability by establishing a strong, authoritarian government.
Constitutional Developments
Moral Constitution of 1823
Authored by the conservative Juan Egaña, this constitution reflected the belief that laws alone could ensure societal order and educate citizens. It aimed to regulate private life and promote morality. It established courts and individual rights. However, it proved impractical due to its numerous unrealistic rules.
Federalist Constitutional Project of 1826
Authored by the liberal José Miguel Infante, this project emphasized decentralization and democratic participation, drawing inspiration from the U.S. model. It aimed to establish a federal system with independent provinces. However, it failed to consider the realities of Chilean inter-provincial rivalries, limited provincial resources, and the lack of preparedness among provincial authorities.
Liberal Constitution of 1828
Authored by the liberal José Joaquín de Mora, this constitution prioritized the protection of fundamental human freedoms. It aimed to establish a liberal republic with significant provincial autonomy and reduced presidential power. It enshrined human rights and allowed for the public practice of non-Catholic religions. However, it excessively weakened the presidency and granted excessive autonomy to provinces that were not yet ready to exercise it.