China’s Political Evolution & Europe’s Nation-Building Challenges
China’s Political Evolution: Crisis and Transition (1976)
China’s internal political development presents two unique aspects. Amid political exhaustion and internal divisions, the analysis must focus on both power struggles and political direction. Mao’s image, once revered, began to decline by the 1960s. Constant revisions to his programs led to the Cultural Revolution, an attempt to revive the early revolutionary fervor of the Chinese Communist Party.
These years saw the formation of political blocs with opposing views:
- Mao’s critics, led by party vice president Liu Shaoqi and supported by Deng Xiaoping, head of the civilian apparatus.
- The Maoist bloc, headed by Defense Minister Lin Biao.
The political conflict revolved around several key issues:
- Economic Development Model: Maoists favored mass mobilization and communal land ownership, while critics leaned towards material incentives and private property, resembling capitalism.
- Cultural Life: Mao emphasized revolutionary romanticism, while opponents advocated for greater artistic freedom.
- Education: Maoists prioritized political indoctrination, while critics stressed expertise transmission.
- Political System: The debate centered on individual-charismatic leadership (Mao) versus collective-institutionalized leadership.
Agrarian social planning was crucial. The Dazhai system, with wage differentiation based on political loyalty, was central to Lin’s program. This led to the downfall of the “right wing” of the CPC, orchestrated by Mao, who grew wary of Lin’s growing power. After Lin’s demise, opponents rehabilitated politicians purged during the Cultural Revolution, leading to Deng Xiaoping’s rise as deputy prime minister.
China embarked on modernization, importing Western technology and implementing productivity-based wages. Private enterprises emerged, and collective activities were dismantled, challenging Mao’s legacy. This resulted in China’s rapid political and economic opening, gradually demystifying Mao’s image through education focused on specialization and propaganda.
Europe’s Nation-Building: Obstacles and Outcomes
The 1848 revolutions symbolized the struggle of liberal and nationalist movements facing resistance from established military powers. As Eric Hobsbawm notes in The Age of Revolution, early nationalism (1789-1848) was nascent, lacking the social conditions for widespread national sentiment. Instead, forces opposing traditional alliances, religion, and mass poverty laid the groundwork for future nationalism.
Despite the revolutions’ failure, the aspiration for unification dominated European politics. The concept of the nation-state proposed dividing Europe into twenty-six sovereign states, with smaller nations either joining or submitting to larger ones. This wasn’t necessarily oppression but a belief in the dominance of certain nations.
Nationalism intertwined with economic progress, as wealth creation funded national institutions like banks and theaters. Nationalism became more widespread, influencing politicians across the spectrum. Internationalism on the Left supported national struggles, but nationalist ideas remained prevalent. State policy became synonymous with national policy.
Flags in the Wind: Nations and Nationalism highlights the deliberate construction of national sentiment. This process involved polarization and the exclusion of alternative political projects, showcasing the novelty of nationalism. Full independence became the sole guarantor of national self-determination. Language also played a significant role in defining nationalism.