Christian Kingdoms in the Late Middle Ages: 14th and 15th Centuries
The Late Middle Ages: Crisis of the 14th and 15th Centuries
Political Organization and Institutions in Castile and Aragon
Kings sought to extend their positions through roles such as the Butler (equity), Chancellor (administration), and Constable (militia), held by a nobility of service. The Royal Council served as a consulting and support body for the king, and the Court administered justice on his behalf. Courts had a minor role, with no legislative capacity, and the estates of the nobility and clergy were increasingly involved. Attorneys from the most active cities were prominent, as the monarch asked them to provide taxes in return for maintaining their power in the councils and municipal councilors. From this point on, the king began to control them through the figure of the Corregidor. The progressive increase in the king’s political power and state-building, despite noble protest, did not mean a loss of economic and social power for the nobles.
In the Crown of Aragon, the different territories were led by a lieutenant (viceroy in Mallorca). As in Castile, the Royal Council and the Audience supported government action. However, a stronger tradition of feudal structures allowed the nobility to retain political power. Thus, courts were convened more often, and the noble estate participated in legislation and foreign policy, providing financial aid when needed. This political operation was known as a pact, and in 1283, Peter III was forced to swear the General Privilege and the Jurisdictions and to accept the Chief Justice of Aragon. The Cortes had a permanent body to monitor agreements, which eventually consolidated as an organ of government (Generalitat of Catalonia). Similarly, cities enjoyed autonomy, and the power of the largest landowners was institutionalized (Board of One Hundred in Barcelona).
Demographic, Economic, and Political Crisis
The medieval economy, primarily based on agriculture and handicrafts, had difficulty maintaining growth as significant as that carried out until the 13th century. Years of poor harvests and epidemics, such as the Black Death, caused a major population loss that led to the abandonment of land (deserts, gentle ronecs). The death of peasants, their flight, and the achievements made to lose much of their income forced the nobles to increase their pressure on the serfs (misuses remensa) and to fight among themselves and with the king for new domains.
This was a period of intense conflict between peasants and lords (Irmandiña War), between artisans and aristocrats in Barcelona (Look-Biga conflict), and, generally, civil wars and attacks on minorities (pogroms) developed. The monarchy tried to consolidate its political power but made major concessions to the nobles, who consolidated their economic and social institutions, such as the Mesta (farmers’ advocacy) and Mayorazgo, protecting their properties.
Expansion of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean
Artisanal and commercial development in Barcelona led to the establishment of consuls and commercial factories in major Mediterranean cities. The crown protected and supported its development with institutions such as the Consulado del Mar. After the great conquests of James I in the 13th century, the nobility and commercial interests were channeled outward. Thus, Peter III supported Neapolitans and Sicilians against French rule and was crowned King of Sicily in 1282. By the Treaty of Caltabellota (1302), France and the Papacy acknowledged his reign, and James II was granted the island of Sardinia. Later (1442), Naples was incorporated into the kingdom built by Alfonso V.
Throughout the process of conquest and political dominance in the Mediterranean, trade and a special army of mercenaries (Almogávares) played a significant role. They even conquered territories in the dominions of the Byzantine Empire (Athens and Neopatria). These actions consolidated a foreign policy that moved away from France and promoted the commercial expansion of the Aragonese, which would continue under the Catholic Monarchs and their successors.
Atlantic Routes: Castilian and Portuguese – The Canary Islands
Commercial development in late medieval Europe led to the search for new routes of exploitation. Genoese sailors reached the Atlantic coast of Africa in the middle of the 13th century, and Aragonese expeditions were made in the 14th century. They sought new avenues of access to gold, African slaves, grain, sugar cane, and spices. The Popes also encouraged a missionary spirit. In the 15th century, the Portuguese and Spaniards took the initiative. The former occupied Ceuta (1415), Madeira (1420), and the Azores (1434) and explored the coast looking for the way to India, where Vasco da Gama arrived in 1498. Henry the Navigator notably enhanced nautical studies in Portugal.
In Castile, Henry III permitted the conquest of the Canary Islands by Juan de Bethencourt (1402) as a vassal, but it was not completed until the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. The expansion of the peninsular kingdoms brought enormous wealth to the European economy, and the technical development facilitated the subsequent discovery of America.