Christianity and Philosophy: Hellenistic and Medieval Thought
Christianity and Philosophy: Hellenism
Stoicism
Founded by Zeno of Citium. Influenced by Heraclitus, Plato, and Aristotle. Stoicism emphasizes logic, physics, and ethics, with physics influencing ethics.
Physics
Stoics view the world as a unified, harmonious whole governed by a universal law, implying determinism. This universal determinism is linked to a natural law driven by providence, precluding the existence of evil. This deterministic view is materialistic, recognizing only a material, passive principle called God, a form of pantheism.
- Humans are part of this universal harmony.
- Humans are subject to universal destiny/order.
- The soul is corporeal.
- Individualism is emphasized.
Epicureanism
Founded by Epicurus. There is no divine intervention; the world, including the mind, is composed of material atoms subject to fate.
Theory of Knowledge
- Sensations: Truths are produced by atoms emanating from things, and reality matches sensations.
- Mental Representations: Memories of sensations.
- Feelings of Pleasure and Pain: These guide actions by distinguishing good (pleasure) from evil (pain).
Happiness equals pleasure, leading to a focus on self-interest. However, Epicurus’s pursuit of pleasure as happiness involves enjoying what is natural and moderate. He distinguishes between natural and necessary pleasures, with only the former leading to happiness.
Ethics and Creation
Epicurean ethics aims to eliminate superstitions so humans can be happy. Happiness arises from understanding that natural phenomena have natural causes, thus negating fear of gods, who are seen as non-existent. Creation is a foreign concept; Epicurean thought posits doing something from something, contrasting with the Jewish and Christian idea of creation from nothing.
St. Anselm
St. Anselm was the first Christian to feel the need to demonstrate God’s existence. His major works include the Proslogion and Monologion. He attempted to reflect on God without relying on scripture, using Augustinian assumptions and prioritizing faith. His position is intermediate between dialectics (starting and staying with understanding/reason) and anti-dialectics (starting and staying with faith).
Ontological Argument
St. Anselm’s ontological argument is a priori, starting with the concept of God, not experience. It argues that God is a being than which nothing greater can be conceived. Such a being must exist in reality, not just in thought, otherwise a greater being could be conceived. The argument’s purpose was likely not purely logical demonstration but rather to aid those struggling with belief, focusing on the relationship between faith and reason.
St. Thomas Aquinas
A key aspect of Aquinas’s thought is the relationship between reason and faith, rethinking the approach of Averroes. He proposed a theory that maintains the autonomy of both, avoiding contradiction. He integrated Aristotelian philosophy with Church teachings, explaining Christian dogma through Aristotle’s framework.
Five Demonstrations of God’s Existence
- Motion: Inspired by Aristotle, observing that movement requires a mover, leading to an unmoved mover (God).
- Efficient Causality: Inspired by Aristotle and Avicenna, arguing that every effect has a cause, leading to an uncaused cause (God).
- Contingency: Inspired by Maimonides and Averroes, observing that contingent beings require a necessary being (God).
- Degrees of Perfection: Inspired by Plato, Augustine, and Anselm, arguing that degrees of perfection imply a perfect being (God).
- Order of the World: Inspired by Seneca and Augustine, arguing that the order of the universe implies an intelligent designer (God).
This final point about order has opposing interpretations: finalist (order implies design) and mechanistic (order can arise from chance). Kant criticized these proofs while acknowledging their reasonableness, suggesting the apparent purpose could be an anthropomorphic illusion.
Machiavelli
Comparisons of St. Thomas and St. Augustine
Despite their differences, both thinkers share Christian starting points, agreeing on creation ex nihilo, God’s goodness, linear time, God’s eternal perfection, and human equality. Augustine is influenced by Neoplatonism, while Aquinas is more Aristotelian and realistic. Regarding the soul, Augustine sees it as spiritual, separate from the body, while Aquinas, following Aristotle, sees it as the form of the body. Both believe in the soul’s immortality, but Augustine offers a proof based on immutable truths requiring an eternal subject, while Aquinas argues the soul’s immortality depends on the body’s resurrection.
Machiavelli’s Philosophy and Political Thought
Machiavelli’s philosophy is secular, reflecting the Renaissance shift away from Church authority. He introduces principles like the unchanging nature of humanity, which is inherently bad. Politics, for him, is a science based on human nature, influenced by both psychology and chance. He views politics from different perspectives: as knowledge (analyzing the times), as manipulation (using means to achieve ends), and as reality (what is, not what should be). He separates politics from religion and ethics.
Forms of Government
Machiavelli believes the state’s purpose is the common good, requiring a free state, social organization, and reduced inequality. He discusses the cycle of government forms: monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and anarchy. He favors a mixed republic like Rome, where power is distributed, ensuring liberty, progress, and stability.
The Prince and State Reform
While favoring a republic, Machiavelli acknowledges the inevitability of decline and corruption. In such cases, he argues, a strong prince with absolute power is needed for reform. He introduces the concept of ‘reason of state,’ where the state’s interest overrides moral considerations. The prince must be willing to act immorally if necessary, prioritizing the state’s survival and expansion.
Virtue, Fortune, and Ethics
Machiavelli’s concept of virtue is not Christian but rather a vital force enabling decisive action. Prudence, or practical wisdom, is essential for success. He also acknowledges the role of fortune, or chance, in political affairs. He believes politics transcends ethics; the prince should prioritize effectiveness over morality, adapting to circumstances.
Politics and Religion
Machiavelli views religion as a tool for social cohesion, criticizing the Catholic Church for its negative political influence and blaming Christianity for weakening society by promoting contemplation over action.
St. Augustine
Philosophical Project
Augustine’s philosophy is autobiographical, a search for truth and salvation found in Christianity. His work synthesizes Christianity and Neoplatonism, influencing later philosophy by transmitting Greek concepts and themes.
God and History
Augustine’s God is the biblical God, active in history, unlike the distant God of Aristotle or the impersonal God of Stoicism. God is present in the soul but is ultimately unknowable.
Creation and the Soul
Augustine argues for creation ex nihilo, contrasting with the Greek idea of an eternal world. He believes God created the world through his Word (Logos), containing the seeds of all things. He struggles with the origin of the soul, considering traducianism and creationism, ultimately leaning towards a Neoplatonic emanation. Original sin, for Augustine, makes the soul turn towards the material, requiring Christ’s grace for liberation.