Cicero’s Rhetoric and Oratory: Power of Eloquence in Ancient Rome
Cicero’s Rhetoric and Oratory
The gift of eloquence was crucial for success in the Roman world. It could open doors and determine victory in the Senate, at the Forum, in the courts, and even on the battlefield. The Romans strongly supported rhetoric studies, recognizing the power and value of public speaking.
The exercise of public speaking was linked to freedom of expression; the greater the civil liberties, the greater the opportunities for the genre. The oratorical flourish and anger prevalent in republican times declined during the imperial era, with its scope reduced to rhetorical schools. Nevertheless, the art of eloquence remained a constant throughout almost all Roman times.
Roman oratory is marked by a significant turning point with Cicero.
The Oratory Pre-Cicero
The earliest oratorical manifestations can be found in unwritten laudationes, particularly in funeral eulogies, praising the deceased’s public and private life.
The influence of Greek philosophers and orators gradually consolidated. Two important figures emerged: Cato and Scipio.
Cato
Cato wrote as he lived, with sobriety and austerity. His speeches were known for their simplicity and sobriety, reflecting the moral conscience of his time.
Scipio
Scipio shared Cato’s concern for the moral values of society but was more open and receptive to Greek influences. He crafted elegant speeches, brief and sober yet more elaborate than Cato’s.
The Ciceronian Oratory
Cicero’s era was particularly conducive to the exercise of speech. The Republic was at a critical juncture, and the public was keenly aware of the pronouncements of their politicians. The teachings of Greek orators resonated within Roman society. Prominent figures included Julius Caesar, Q. Hortensius, and Cicero.
Cicero defended the Republic and viewed Caesar’s rise with suspicion, sensing dictatorial and imperialist tendencies. He clashed with Mark Antony, delivering invectives that would ultimately cost him his life. His travels enriched his culture, making him an authentic figure in Roman public life.
Ciceronian Speeches
Cicero’s speeches can be divided into two main categories:
Judicial Speeches
These were delivered before a court, either as defense counsel or prosecutor.
- In C. Verrem: Seven speeches against Verres, though Verres went into voluntary exile after only two were delivered.
- Pro Marcelo
- Pro Murena
- Pro Archia Poeta: A defense of literature.
- Pro Roscio Amerino
- Among others.
Political Speeches
These were delivered in the Senate or the Forum.
- The Empire of Pompey: A plea for Pompey against Caesar.
- Catiline Orations: Speeches against L. Catalina, a candidate for consul who plotted a conspiracy to seize power and was discovered by Cicero.
- Philippics: Fourteen virulent speeches against Mark Antony. Antony never forgave these attacks, leading to Cicero’s atrocious death.
Cicero’s style evolved, demonstrating undeniable perfection in composition, execution, and pronunciation. The purpose of his speeches was to “instruct, delight, and excite” (docere, delectare, and movere).
The Rhetorical Works of Cicero
Beyond composing and performing speeches, Cicero was also a literary critic and theorist of rhetoric, as evidenced by his works De Oratore, Brutus, and Orator.
He explained the five parts of the speech-making process:
- Inventio: The search for rationale.
- Dispositio: The proper distribution of arguments, linking them to each other.
- Elocutio: The art of decorating ideas with precise syntax.
- Memory: Remembering each piece of data in its proper place.
- Actio: Pronunciation of discourse, gestures, voice, emphasis.
He also explained the structure of a speech:
- Exordium: Introduction.
- Narratio: Exposition of the subject matter.
- Argumentatio: Composed of the probatio (rationale of arguments) and the refutatio (rejection of actual or potential objections).
- Peroratio: Final conclusion.
After Cicero, oratory found refuge in schools of rhetoric, where Cicero’s treatises became reference books and mandatory reading.