Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theories
Rousseau’s Concept of the Individual/Society Relationship
Rousseau believed in the social contract, where individuals agree to certain terms for the betterment of society. This might involve relinquishing some freedoms in exchange for security and social order. Individuals may hold diverse opinions and desires based on their circumstances. Humans adapt to their environment and are shaped by it. Rousseau highlights two driving principles in the state of nature: pity and self-preservation.
Weber’s Key Features of Bureaucracy and Their Effects
Hierarchy of Authority
Information flows down a chain of command, originating from the top. This structure can lead to efficient decision-making but may also stifle individual initiative and creativity.
Written Rules of Conduct
Companies establish rules that employees must follow. This ensures consistency and predictability but can also lead to rigid and impersonal interactions.
Merit-Based Selection
Personnel selection is competitive and based on demonstrated merit, reducing incompetence from nepotism or tradition. This benefits qualified individuals but can also lead to a routinized environment that stifles creativity and makes individuals feel like cogs in a machine.
Durkheim’s Concept of Anomie and Its Social Roots of Suicide
Anomie refers to a lack of moral regulation in society. This can occur during periods of rapid social and personal change, leading to feelings of disconnect and normlessness.
Altruistic Suicide
Individuals sacrifice themselves for the group, often due to excessive integration into society.
Egoistic Suicide
Individuals with insufficient integration into society may experience a sense of isolation and meaninglessness, leading to suicide.
Durkheim argues that human happiness depends on the satisfaction of needs. When these needs are unmet, individuals may experience pain and lose the will to live.
Freud’s Theory on Society’s Regulation of Sexuality
Freud believed that civilization is responsible for societal misery. He argued that regulating sexuality causes disruption and unhappiness. If society were less restrictive, individuals could contribute more positively and experience greater fulfillment. Freud used three key terms:
Id
The source of psychological energy derived from instinctual needs.
Ego
The organized, conscious mediator between the internal self and external reality.
Superego
Represents rules, conflicts, morals, and guilt.
Castells’ Network Society: Positive and Negative Changes
Positive Changes
The network society has led to the development of flexible work arrangements, such as part-time work, temporary work, self-employment, and contract work. This offers greater autonomy and adaptability but can also lead to job insecurity and a lack of benefits.
The network society has not resulted in mass unemployment due to new informational technologies.
Negative Changes
Many jobs previously performed by humans are now automated, leading to job displacement and the need for workers to adapt to new skills and roles.
Foucault’s View of Modernity as a New Age of Punishment and Discipline
Foucault sees modernity as characterized by the rise of prisons and surveillance as a means of self-discipline. The prison system evolved from earlier forms of punishment, such as torture and public executions. Foucault argues that this new mode of punishment aims to control society morally. Institutions like schools, hospitals, and factories are modeled after prisons, employing techniques of hierarchical observation, judgment, and examination.
Marcuse’s Theory on Consumerism and the Manufacture of False Needs
Marcuse believed that consumerism perpetuates dissatisfaction by creating false needs. We are driven to acquire material possessions to project an image of success and happiness. These false needs serve as a form of social control, limiting our perceptions of freedom and leading to a state of “unfreedom.” Individuals seek social connections based on material items they don’t truly need, fostering a sense of alienation and emptiness.