Classical and Operant Conditioning in Anxiety and Fear
Classical and Operant Conditioning: Understanding Anxiety and Fear
Classical Conditioning Theory: The Rayner-Watson Model
This model highlights three main features:
- Repeated association between conditioned stimuli (CS) and unconditioned stimuli (US) strengthens the conditioned response (CR) of fear.
- Phobic fear reactions are more likely when the fear induced by the US is intense (e.g., traumatic events).
- Neutral stimuli similar to the CS can also elicit fear reactions, with the intensity increasing with the resemblance to the original CS.
The principle of equipotentiality proposed by Watson and Rayner appears inconsistent with the selective nature of classical and operant conditioning.
Bivariate Mediational Model in Operant Conditioning
Mowrer’s model centers around the active avoidance paradigm:
- Initially, a fear CR is established through Pavlovian conditioning.
- Subsequently, through active avoidance, the subject learns to avoid the US (punishment).
Mowrer explained the neurotic paradox by suggesting that avoidance behavior prevents the extinction of the classically conditioned fear response.
Theoretical Alternatives to the Bivariate Model
Non-Operant Safety Signal Theory
This theory proposes that avoidance behavior is driven by positive reinforcement rather than negative reinforcement.
Discriminative Stimulus Theory
This theory suggests that the CS acts as a discriminative stimulus rather than a signal of impending danger (US). The subject learns to discriminate between stimuli instead of avoiding aversive CSs.
Operant Mediational Alternatives
Solomon and Wynne introduced two principles:
- Principle of Conservation of Anxiety: Short-latency avoidance responses prevent the full expression of autonomic anxiety reactions to the CS.
- Principle of Partial Irreversibility: Intense fear reactions can make it difficult to fully extinguish the classical CR.
Levis added the concept of complexity and seriality of the CS, suggesting that fear responses can be elicited by even brief presentations of the CS.
Preparedness Theory
Marks introduced the concept of preparedness to explain the limited range of common phobias. Seligman’s concept of biological preparedness suggests that organisms are evolutionarily predisposed to develop certain fears. Phobias are characterized by:
- Selectivity
- Ease of acquisition
- Resistance to extinction
- Irrationality
Anxiety Incubation
Basic Concepts of the Incubation Model
Eysenck’s incubation theory posits that anxiety is acquired and maintained through Pavlovian Type B conditioning, where the CR and the unconditioned response (UR) are similar. Both the US and CS are assumed to have drive properties. The concept of aversive response suggests that the subject experiences both the US and UR.
The Critical Point Concept
The model proposes a hypothetical critical point that determines the critical strength of the response and the critical duration of CS exposure. Beyond this point, the response strength may increase or decrease depending on the duration of CS exposure.
Empirical Support and Alternatives to the Incubation Model
Rescorla and Heth’s fear reinstatement hypothesis suggests that mnemonic representations of the CS and US are formed during conditioning. The CR is elicited by activating the US representation. Repeated CS presentations can lead to extinction, but subsequent US presentations can reinstate the fear response.
Davey’s theory of US revaluation proposes that factors influencing the evaluation of the US can affect its value and, consequently, the strength of the CR.
Conditioning and Cognitive Processes
Acquisition of Phobias
Fears and phobias can be acquired directly or indirectly. Animal phobias are often associated with events other than direct conditioning experiences.
Cognitive Models of Learning
Outcome Expectations (Seligman and Johnston)
This model emphasizes the role of outcome expectations in shaping behavior. A related concept is preference, which refers to the tendency to choose responses based on expected outcomes.
Self-Efficacy Theory (Bandura)
This theory incorporates both outcome expectations and self-efficacy expectations, which refer to the belief in one’s ability to perform specific actions successfully. Anxiety is more closely associated with self-efficacy expectations than with outcome expectations.
Expectancy Model of Anxiety (Reiss)
This model distinguishes between anxiety expectations and danger expectations.
Expectancy Model: US Revaluation (Davey)
This model suggests that the strength of the CR depends not only on associative processes but also on the individual’s reassessment of the US.
Anxiety and Information Processing
Emotion and Cognition (Zajonc)
Zajonc differentiated emotional responses from cognitive ones, arguing that emotional responses are effortless, involuntary, and easier to communicate despite being harder to verbalize.
Emotion and Imagery: Bioinformational Processing (Lang)
Lang proposed that all information, including mental imagery, is encoded in an abstract and uniform way. He suggested that emotional images are evaluated as propositional structures rather than sensory representations.
Cognitive Bias and Anxiety (Beck)
Beck proposed that both depression and anxiety are associated with mood-congruent biases in information processing.
Associative Network Theory (Bower)
This theory suggests that emotions are represented in memory as associative networks, with each emotion having a specific node connected to various aspects of that emotion.
Selective Attention and Anxiety: Automatic and Strategic Processing
Selective attention in anxiety appears to be broad, indicating a general threat bias. The priming effect has been considered evidence of automatic processing in anxiety.
Anxiety and Cognitive Processing: Towards Integration (Öhman)
Öhman proposed that anxiety stems from biological defense systems:
- Feature Detector: Operates pre-attentively.
- Significance Evaluator: Automatically assesses relevance.
- Activation System: Increases the bias of the evaluator.
- Expectation System: Integrates information into existing structures.
- Conscious Perception of Threat: Integrates information consciously.
Biological Aspects of Anxiety
Predisposition to Anxiety Disorders
Except for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), there appears to be a significant heritable component in the familial transmission of anxiety disorders.
Biochemical and Neurobiological Aspects
LeDoux highlighted the importance of a neural pathway directly connecting the thalamus to the amygdala in emotional reactions.
Theories and Anxiety Disorders
Catastrophic Interpretation (Clark)
Clark used the concept of catastrophic interpretation to develop a cognitive model of panic disorder. The unusual sensations associated with hyperventilation are interpreted negatively and catastrophically by the individual.