Classical Philosophy: From Naturalism to Ethical and Political Thought
Classical Philosophy
From Naturalism to Ethical and Political Thought
Classical philosophy emerged with the birth of rational reflections on nature (physis) and the cosmos, moving away from religious and mythical explanations. This shift occurred during the 6th-7th centuries BC, a period of economic and cultural flourishing for the Greek colonies. The first philosopher, Thales of Miletus, embarked on a quest to identify the arche, the fundamental principle of all physical existence. This pursuit characterized the pre-Socratic philosophers, including Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Heraclitus of Ephesus. Drawing inspiration from Egyptian and Mesopotamian science, they sought to determine the origin of the physis, proposing various elements (water, air, fire) as the primordial substance from which all reality derived. They also explored the laws (logos) governing the cosmos, replacing anthropomorphic myths with natural elements and developing innovative scientific cosmologies.
The Rise of Abstract Thought and Ethical Concerns
During the 5th-4th centuries BC, philosophers like Pythagoras and Parmenides, based in Southern Italy, engaged in abstract and rational reflections on the arche and the structure of reality. They emphasized mathematical thinking and questioned the role of the senses in attaining truth. As classical Greece reached its zenith, exemplified by Pericles’ Athens, the focus shifted towards ethical and political problems. The Sophists, educators of the future elite, championed epistemological relativism, arguing against absolute truths and portraying moral values as subjective and culturally relative. They promoted moral conventionalism and political empiricism, reflecting the dominant ideology of the democratic government.
Socrates and the Search for Universal Moral Values
In contrast to the Sophists, Socrates challenged moral relativism by seeking essential definitions of universal moral values. Through dialectical dialogue, he and his disciples sought to uncover absolute truths that could justify moral principles. Socrates advocated moral intellectualism, believing that true knowledge of justice leads to righteous behavior. He emphasized the importance of philosophy as a means to virtue and a good life.
Plato’s Ideal State and Aristotle’s Scientific Approach
Plato, embracing Socrates’ message, applied moral intellectualism to politics, culminating in his theory of the philosopher-ruler. He posited a world of intelligible essences or Ideas, separate from the sensible world. True justice, according to Plato, stemmed from knowledge of the essence of justice, leading to a harmonious life and just rule. Plato’s philosophy aimed to provide a political remedy for existing regimes, envisioning a state governed by philosophers as the ideal form of government. Aristotle, a student of Plato, critiqued his teacher’s theory of Forms while upholding the pursuit of true knowledge. He emphasized scientific analysis of sensible realities to discover essences and truth. Aristotle constructed a comprehensive philosophical system encompassing logic, ontology, physics, cosmology, anthropology, ethics, and politics. He embraced a natural or rational eudaemonism, linking virtue to wisdom and happiness. Inheriting aspects of Plato’s political theory, Aristotle’s model of the cosmos endured until the scientific revolution of the 15th-16th centuries. The Hellenistic period marked the end of classical philosophy.