Classical Sociological Theory: Marx, Durkheim, and Weber
Karl Marx (1818-1883): Sociologist of Industrialization
Marx’s focus was not on the market, but on the factory. Observing the industrial world, he saw men reduced to commodities, wages falling, and human generosity eroded by the dominance of money. His materialist conception of history posits that social change is driven not by ideas or values, but by material conditions. Class conflict fuels historical development, and social relations are determined by the relations and mode of production. In the capitalist mode of production, the means of production (capital, facilities, machines) are privately owned by the capitalist class. Two key elements in Marx’s analysis of capitalist society are the division of labor and the work process.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917): Division of Labor and Social Solidarity
Durkheim viewed the division of labor as a social phenomenon structuring society. Invoking Darwin’s concept of the struggle for existence, he argued that as individuals compete for resources, social differentiation emerges as a peaceful resolution, enabling survival and fostering individual freedom in modern societies. The challenge lies in maintaining a minimum level of collective consciousness to prevent societal disintegration. Durkheim distinguished between two types of solidarity: mechanical solidarity (based on similarity and resemblance) and organic solidarity (based on consensus and differentiation). Collective consciousness comprises shared beliefs and sentiments, existing only through individual consciousness. In The Rules of Sociological Method, Durkheim proposed treating social facts (ways of acting and feeling) as things existing independently of individual consciousness. His study of suicide explored this pathological reality of modern societies, identifying egoistic (non-integrated), altruistic (sacrificing oneself for a social cause), and anomic (lack of regulation) suicides.
Max Weber (1864-1920): Theory of Social Action
Weber’s sociology centers on the theory of social action: individuals give meaning to their world, and their actions and interpretations shape society. While sharing some of Marx’s views on social conflict, Weber’s approach is less materialistic and emphasizes the power of ideas. For Weber, thought and new ways of thinking are paramount. A social act is any behavior oriented towards others. Weber identified four types of social action:
- Rational action for a purpose: The actor identifies a goal and chooses the means to achieve it.
- Rational action on a value: The actor acts rationally to uphold a value, such as honor.
- Affective or emotional action: Driven by emotions.
- Traditional action: Determined by habits, customs, and beliefs.
Weber challenged historical materialism by examining the influence of religion on economic behavior. He argued that human behavior is intelligible only within the framework of their worldview, including religious dogmas. Like Marx, Weber recognized the pursuit of profit through the market as central to capitalism. However, he considered bureaucratic rationalization as the fundamental characteristic of modern society and capitalism. He also hypothesized that certain interpretations of Protestantism fostered the development of capitalism.