Clauses, Coordination, and Ellipsis in English Grammar

Posted on Nov 19, 2024 in History

Subordination, Coordination, and Ellipsis

Recognizing Dependent Clauses

  1. The fact is that the community needs them (finite subject predicative).
  2. While he was gone, a nurse…doorway (finite adverbial).
  3. Billy didn’t even know whether he was alive (finite direct object).
  4. Did she say anything about what happened (finite prepositional complement)?
  5. Richard Wood…Dr Grant that such…halted (finite direct object).
  6. Our goal is to make their voices heard (non-finite subject predicative).
  7. To make…worse, the economy…juggernaut (non-finite adverbial).
  8. After I asked her out (finite adverbial), she told me that she prefers just my friendship (finite direct object).
  9. That they are already struggling…trouble…Taylor (finite subject).
  10. If we remember (finite adverbial) that most…survive (finite direct object), we may at least say that the development…precluded (finite direct object).
  11. They fear that as winter approaches (finite adverbial), medical emergencies…beds, halting…operations (non-finite adverbial).
  12. After the Paris…questions (finite adverbial), ask them to make up…topic (non-finite direct object).
  13. ADMAR hopes that its…for handling…subordinates (finite direct object, with non-finite prepositional complement).

Coordination with And, Or, But

  1. Be reliant and helpful to others (adjective phrases).
  2. Either you’re going to like it or you’re…hate it (independent clauses, correlative coordination).
  3. Do you have any star dates or stop dates (noun phrases)?
  4. Oh, she cooks, but she never bakes (independent clauses).
  5. She’s got a squiggle…case, but no…ball (noun phrases).
  6. I heard…about you and Dave (noun phrases).
  7. You can…language, and yet, something…understood, and you cannot…why (coordinated clauses).
  8. There are…bridegrooms, but there are 4 factory workers and 4 coal-miners.

Full Forms vs. Contractions

  1. Beautiful Di…negative contraction not normally possible with am, except for the marginally acceptable: ain’t. Verb contraction possible: I’m not.
  2. Negative contraction not …with am. Verb contraction not possible since interrogative word order. Two marginally acceptable alternatives: aren’t/ain’t.
  3. Both possible: haven’t (+common) with verb have/we’ve not.
  4. Both possible: wouldn’t (+common with verb would) or I’d not.
  5. Both possible: they’re not (+common with verb be) and aren’t.
  6. Both: won’t (+common with verb will) / she’ll not.

Independent Clauses

  1. Prepositional complement
  2. Part of adverbial
  3. Subject, no inversion with subject wh-words
  4. Part of subject predicative
  5. Adverbial
  6. Part of direct object
  7. Part of adverbial; no inversion because wh-word is not fronted
  8. Part of subject; no inversion with subject wh-words
  9. Adverbials
  10. Prepositional complement or indirect object
  11. Direct object

Types of Interrogative Clause

  1. Yes/no
  2. Non-clausal
  3. Declarative
  4. Alternative
  5. Yes/no
  6. Yes/no
  7. Wh- question
  8. Question tag

Dependent Clauses: Types and Roles of Finite Dependent Clauses

  1. Which Sigmund Freu…love is well known (relative clause).
  2. Scudamore added that he…pressure than he had last season (complement clause, comparative clause).
  3. I thought I knew…made (complement clause, direct object), said Rick (reporting clause).
  4. There’s…Buntaro-san, is there (tag clause)?
  5. They understand what it’s all about (complement clause) when they read about who holds…companies (adverbial clause, with complement clause as prepositional complement).
  6. So that was the main thing that Jennifer…about when we sell…gels (relative clause, with adverbial clause).
  7. Well…thing that I…meeting (relative clause) was that I think that…money that…raises that we should…formula (complement clause, subject predicative).

Types and Roles of Non-finite Clauses

  1. To get yourself something to eat (infinitive clause, adverbial; infinitive clause, postmodifier in noun phrase).
  2. To be a good Muslim is to be a good citizen (infinitive clause, subject; infinitive clause, subject predicative).
  3. Try to get out and about whenever possible (infinitive clause, direct object; verbless clause). Making new friends and contacts (-ing clause, adverbial; supplement clause).
  4. I was happy to let the pleasant sunny days go by (infinitive clause, adjectival complement; bare infinitive clause, object predicative).
  5. When in the army (verbless clause, adverbial).
  6. Regarded…expectations (-ed clause, adverbial).
  7. To found a Christina movement based on social…piety (infinitive clause, adverbial; -ed clause, noun postmodifier).
  8. To label certain foods containing oats as being…disease (infinitive clause, direct object; -ing clause, prepositional complement).
  9. To do is to turn…bag (infinitive clause, noun postmodifier; infinitive clause, subject predicative).

Identifying Independent Clauses, Dependent Clauses, and Non-Clausal Material

Independent: Of course, anything that I’ve wanted I’ve already taken, and nobody knows about it. Non-clausal: Well, not very much, just a few things. I mean, they are… There’s a couple of things that I want, but I think my mother would notice if I took them. I know she would because they are kind of like these… They are probably worth a couple of $100 each, and I think she got them from my aunt Eva. Academic: Managers often find it difficult not to pass judgment automatically. Conscious…needed to avoid…behaviour. Sender…in communications, one should…to formulate a reply while…speaking, instead of concentrating on trying to listen to what the…saying.

Types of Noun Modification: Identifying Noun Premodifiers and Postmodifiers

  1. It, a nice house (nice = adjective)
  2. The floor, the floating raft at the beach (prepositional phrase)
  3. He, Simon’s house, which was…lane (relative clause)
  4. Cockerill, the club captain (appositive noun phrase), the Saints
  5. Those who know him (relative clause), he, an arrogant side (adjective)

Types of Noun Premodification

d, b, e, a, c

The Order of Premodifiers

  1. The participial modifier armed precedes the noun modifier company.
  2. The adverb strangely precedes the adjective hairless.
  3. The color adjective black follows the other adjectives little and beady.
  4. The descriptor adjective new precedes the classifier adjective economic.

The Structure of Relative Clauses

  1. (dollars) that was in there (gap: subject)
  2. (things) I want to do (relativizer: zero, gap: direct object)
  3. (group) which insure invoices and financing arrangements (gap: subject)
  4. (year) that the oppositions…crew (gap: adverbial)
  5. (people) with whom we share our lives (gap: complement of preposition)

Restrictive and Non-restrictive Functions of Relative Clauses

  1. Who had always been a great one for psychology (non-restrictive)
  2. Which had stopped at five minutes to eleven some weeks ago (non-restrictive)
  3. That own ITV (restrictive)
  4. Which really happened to me (restrictive)

Relativizer Choices

  1. Ø I was going to get engaged to (zero is a typical choice for a restrictive clause in conversation, where there is a non-subject gap).
  2. That came (that is the most popular relative pronoun in restrictive clauses in conversation).
  3. Where he acquired a British accent (where is the relativizer used to express place in non-restrictive clauses).
  4. Which have the same mass ration (which is used for relative clauses with an inanimate noun head and is particularly common in academic writing).
  5. Whom men think of as superior to themselves in certain ways (whom is particularly used in academic prose for relative clauses with a non-subject gap and an animate head noun).

Identifying Other Types of Postmodifiers

  1. (climb) from rags to riches (prepositional phrases)
  2. (problem) involving a chemical reaction (-ing clause)
  3. (ability) to remodel themselves (to-clause)
  4. (ambassador) to Peru (prepositional phrase); former hostage AV (appositive noun phrase); (commission) of guarantors (prepositional phrase)
  5. (powers) given to police in the martial law decree (-ed clause)

Distinguishing Complement Clauses from Other Postmodifiers

  1. a) complement that-clause; e) relative clause
  2. b) complement to-clause; g) prepositional phrase with to
  3. c) of + complement -ing clause; f) prepositional phrase with of
  4. d) complement wh-interrogative clause; e) relative clause

Identifying the Controlling Element, Type, and Position of Complement Clauses

  1. Controlling element: verb hoped; type: non-finite to-clause; position: post-predicate adjective complement
  2. Verb: is; type: finite wh-clause; position: post-predicate, subject predicative
  3. Verb: stop; type: non-finite -ing clause; position: post-predicate direct object
  4. Verb: think; type: finite that-clause; position: post-predicate direct object
  5. Adjective: happy; type: finite that-clause; position: post-predicate adjective complement
  6. Verb: wonder; type: finite wh-clause; position: post-predicate direct object
  7. Verb: beginning; type: non-finite to-clause; position: post-predicate direct object
  8. Verb: see; type: finite wh-clause; position: post-predicate direct object
  9. Be + adjective; type: finite that-clause; position: extraposed subject
  10. Verb: said; type: finite that-clause; position: post-predicate direct object
  11. Verb: appear; type: non-finite to-clause; position: post-predicate direct object
  12. Be + adjective was fitting; type: finite that-clause; position: subject
  13. Be + adjective is hard; type: non-finite to-clause; position: extraposed subject
  14. Verb: believe; type: finite wh-clause; position: post-predicate direct object

Analyzing Embedded that-Clauses

  1. Think (verb); that it’s…Hillary (post-predicate direct object). Is strange and meaningful (be + adjective); that he…Hillary (extraposed subject).
  2. Is (verb); that…person (post-predicate subject predicative); sure (adjective); that I…person (adjectival complement).
  3. Reminded (verb); that a…sweatsuit (post-predicate direct object). Testified (verb); that she…sweatsuit (post-predicate direct object).
  4. Argues (verb); that it…steps (post-predicate direct object); is inconceivable (be + adjective); that the…steps (extraposed subject).
  5. Adding (verb); that it…noticed (post-predicate direct object). Was strange (be + adjective); that such…noticed (extraposed subject).
  6. Know; that we…commitment (post-predicate direct object). (Make) sure (adjective); that the…commitment (adjectival complement). Understood (verb); that there…commitment (post-predicate direct object).
  7. Guess (verb); she…car; position = post-predicate direct object. Knows (verb); that I…car (post-predicate direct object). Plausible (adjective); that they…guy (extraposed subject).
  8. Knew (verb); that she…him (post-predicate direct object). Knew (verb); that she…him (post-predicate direct object).

Information Flow and Subject that-Clauses

  1. That the FOP…air refers to previously mentioned information because the previous sentence suggested that the FOP has pressured NPR. It can be considered generally known that policemen wouldn’t want the killer of a police to spread his view.
  2. That…moment presents factual information assumed to be generally known.
  3. That the media…marriages. Both that-clauses present information generally known by readers, or at least it’s what the author thinks.

Discourse Factors with that Retention vs. Omission

  1. That omitted: common controlling verb think, co-referent subjects, and personal pronoun as subject of that-clause.
  2. Omitted: common verb think, pronoun subject of that-clause.
  3. Retained: coordinated that-clauses, not common controlling verb, not co-referent subjects, not pronoun subject of that-clause.
  4. a) Retained: no common verb told, not co-referent subject, not pronoun subject of that-clause, intervening noun phrase between the controlling verb and that-clause (applied also to told her). b) Retained: common verb know, not co-referent subjects, personal pronoun subject of that-clause.
  5. Retained: no common verb convinced, not co-referent subjects, not a personal pronoun subject of the that-clause, passive voice with the controlling verb.
  6. Retained: not common verb reassure, not co-referent subjects, not pronoun subject of that-clause, intervening noun phrase (the West Germans) between the controlling verb and that-clause.
  7. Omitted: common verb said, co-referent subjects, personal pronoun subject of that-clause.

Wh-Clauses as Dependent Interrogative Clauses vs. Nominal Relative Clauses

  1. What…shows (nominal relative, subject position, verb is)
  2. Why…that (dependent interrogative, post-predicate position, controlling element: verb wonder)
  3. Where…going. What…is (who-clauses: dependent interrogative, post-predicate direct object; control: adjective clear)
  4. What…hearing. Why…asked. How…doing: a) wh-clause: nominal relative, post-predicate subject predicative, verb is. b) wh-clause: nominal relative, post-predicate subject predicative, verb is. c) wh-dependent interrogative, post-predicate direct object, control verb asked.
  5. How…that (nominal relative, post-predicate subject predicative, verb is). Where…going (nominal relative, post-predicate subject predicative, verb is).
  6. Wh-: dependent interrogative, post-predicate adjective complement, verb sure.

Grammatical Patterns of Post-Predicate to-Clauses

  1. Was expected…to morning (passive verb + to-clause)
  2. Saw him bleed (verb + noun phrase + bare infinitive clause)
  3. Would like…to me (verb + for + noun phrase + to-clause)
  4. Like to…conditions (verb + to-clause). Would like to go into (idem). Found to be too stringent (verb + noun phrase + to-clause). Wanted to go (verb + to-clause).

Meanings of Post-Predicate to-Clauses Controlled by Verbs

  1. Want (desire) the…crisis (subject: the superpowers)
  2. Said (speech act)…to you (subject: Mark)
  3. Want (desire) to ask (speech act)…that (subject: Michelles)
  4. Need (desire) to…Ann (subject: I). Forgot (cognition)…that…
  5. Mean (intention/decisions)…happen (subject: this). Trust (cognition)…reply (subject: I).
  6. Was felt (perception)…to revolution (subject of passive: the Promethean impulse)
  7. Seems (probability)…care (no subject)
  8. Began (aspectual)…did (subject: we)
  9. Tried (effort)…pictures (subject: we)

Recognizing Raising and Extraposed Constructions

  1. Easy (ease/difficulty)…satisfied (extraposed to-clause)
  2. Unlikely (degree of certainty)…cost (post-predicate to-clause, subject-to-subject raising)
  3. Difficult (ease/difficulty)…interpret (post-predicate to-clause; object-to-subject raising)
  4. Difficult (ease/difficulty)…microcomputers (extraposed to-clause)
  5. Happy (emotion/stance)…while (post-predicate to-clause, no raising)
  6. Impossible (ease/difficulty) (post-predicate to-clause; object-to-subject raising)
  7. Possible (ease/difficulty)…neighbour (extraposed to-clause)

Describing the Discourse Functions of Subject to-Clauses

To expect…bath; to be European in France; to be European…Scotland; to be…Italy; to be…England. Sequence of subject to-clauses that present a progression of ideas and an anaphoric link. All of these to-clauses refer back to the idea in the first sentence, that the participants do not think of themselves as being European.

-ing Forms in Complement Clauses vs. Other Grammatical Uses

  1. Stalling (complement clause, controlled by verb kept trying)
  2. Existing (adjective). Recording (complement clause, controlled by adjective predicate capable); shaking (noun)
  3. Hearing (complement clause, controlled by verb love). Saying (complement clause, controlled by verb mind)
  4. Probing (adverbial supplement clause). Containing (noun postmodifying clause)

Ellipsis and Substitution

  1. That-clause with not substitution, full form: I hope that he will not be back in there within two years.
  2. Don’t you want to? (To-clause with ellipsis, clause omitted, complementizer retained; full form: Or don’t you want to share?)
  3. No, I don’t think so (that-clause substitution with so; full form: No, I don’t think I am supposed to…).
  4. I don’t know why (wh-clause with ellipsis, clause omitted, complementizer retained; full form: I don’t know why…).
  5. You’ll see how I tried to, but (to-clause with ellipsis, clause omitted, complementizer retained; full form: You’ll see how I tried to…).
  6. Yeah, I know, she told… (that-clause with ellipsis, clause and complementizer omitted; full form: I know that she…).
  7. I guess not (that-clause with not substitution; full form: I guess that she…).
  8. I don’t remember why… (wh-clause with ellipsis, clause omitted, complementizer retained; full form: I don’t remember why taking…).

Comparing the Use of Complement Clauses in Texts

that-Clauses in Post-Predicate Position: that she breastfed him (verb: told), he’s married now and is having his first child (verb: guess), I didn’t love him (verb: think), he didn’t really want… (verb: realized), there are no little people…hurt him (adjective: (make) sure), she’d come in (verb: think), I can just pop them back in the microwave (verb: guess). Wh-Clauses Post-Predicate: if I told him no (verb: imagine), if he was or not (verb: know). to-Clauses: To know… (verb: hurt, extraposed), to go in the bathroom (verb: want, post-predicate). So: Substitute form for that-clause (verb: think). -ing Clauses: running back there (verb: go, post-predicate). Bare Infinitives: wash your hands (verb: come, post-predicate). Academic: that-Clauses Post-Predicate: that Marx…per se (verb: contends), that the appropriation…coercive practice (verb: note), that Asiatic society…society (noun: notion), that Marx…daily life (verb: appear, extraposed), that in religion…of violence (noun: contention), that the hegemony…sects (verb: noted, extraposed). to-Clauses Post-Predicate: to describe…a ruling class (verb: careful), to draw…expenses (adjective: able), to develop…theocracy (adjective: able), to note… (adjective: important, extraposed).

Identifying Circumstance, Stance, and Linking Adverbials

  1. There, now, again (circumstance adverbials, adverbs)
  2. Out here (circumstance adverbial, adverb particle + adverb); Monday or Tuesday (circumstance adverbial, noun phrases)
  3. Unfortunately (stance adverbial, adverb)
  4. Strangely (stance adverbial, adverb); never, fully (circumstance adverbials, adverbs); in Wales (circumstance adverbial, prepositional phrase)
  5. Well (circumstance adverbial, adverb); after…doughnut (circumstance adverbial, prepositional phrase)
  6. In turn (circumstance, prepositional phrase); therefore (linking adverbial)
  7. Personally (stance adverbial, adverb)
  8. In order to…confidence (circumstance, adverbial clause)

The Scope of Adverbials

  1. 2a has broader scope, over the whole clause. 2b, in the home…class, has scope only over the verb phrase ended up.
  2. 3b has broader scope. 3a, sort of, has scope only over the adjective phrase scary looking. 3b, generally speaking, has scope over the entire clause pattern they won’t…dinner.
  3. 4a has broader scope, over the whole sentence. 4b, for example, has scope only over the prepositional phrase by computers….

Use of Just in Conversation

Giving Emphasis: 1 (replace with simply or completely); 2 (replace with really); 5, 7 (replace with simply). Meaning Exactly: 3. Meaning a Small Request or Object: 4, 8, 9, 10 (simply or only). Meaning Immediacy: 6.

Analyzing Adverbial Clauses

  1. Because schizophrenia…disorder (contingency, reason, finite)
  2. As if…out (other/manner, non-finite)
  3. If you…exams (contingency, conditional/open condition, finite)
  4. Although she…younger (other/concession, finite)
  5. Since…kid (time, finite)
  6. Since…heuristic (contingency, reason, finite)
  7. Wherever (place, finite)
  8. As far as…concerned (respect or perspective, finite)
  9. If (contingency, conditional/hypothetical, finite)
  10. None (to…cycles; purpose, non-finite)
  11. None (…overalls; supplement, non-finite)

Stance Adverbials in Conversation and Expository Writing

  1. According…estimates (epistemic stance adverbial; news or academic, heavy use of prepositional phrases and noun phrases)
  2. Not surprisingly (attitude stance adverbial; academic, since this kind of adverbial is more common there than in conversation. Also, the noun phrase workers at… is more precise than what is found in conversation).
  3. To…truth (style stance adverbial; conversational, since they are more common there than in academic prose. Also, the discourse marker well and the repair I are more typical in conversation).
  4. Like (epistemic stance adverbial, imprecision; like as a stance adverbial is used primarily in casual conversation).
  5. Approximately (epistemic stance adverbial, imprecision; academic, since dense use of nouns, prepositional phrases, and technical vocabulary is more common there).
  6. Frankly (style stance adverbial; conversational, more common there. Also, the discourse marker well and the repair I are more typical in conversation).
  7. Actually (epistemic stance adverbial, actuality/reality; conversational, since more common there. See also the false start and use of first-person pronoun).
  8. Hopefully (attitude stance adverbial; infrequent in conversation and expository register. Circumstance adverbials like at present are more common in expository writing).
  9. I guess (epistemic stance adverbial, certainty/doubt; comment clauses like I guess are more common in conversation).
  10. Maybe (epistemic stance adverbial, doubt; conversational, maybe is more common there).

Semantic Categories of Linking Adverbials

  1. For example (apposition)
  2. In contrast (contrast)
  3. Though (concession)
  4. Second (enumeration)
  5. In conclusion (summation)
  6. By the way (transition)
  7. Likewise (addition)
  8. Thus (result)

Typical Positions for Adverbials

Final, initial, final, final, initial, medial, initial, final.

Adverbials in Texts

At some point today (circumstance/time, prepositional phrase, initial; it is setting up the time frame for the whole story). If everything is right (circumstance/condition, finite clause, initial; it establishes a conditional framework for the following activities). With an irrepressible grin and as much water as his burro can carry (circumstance/manner, prepositional phrases, final; typical position of a circumstance adverbial that adds descriptive information to the clause). South (circumstance/place/direction, adverb, final; it has scope only over the verb). If all goes well (circumstance/condition, finite clause, initial; establishes a conditional framework for the information in the following main clause). Well (embedded) (circumstance/manner, adverb, final; it only has scope over the verb). In Cabo San Lucas (circumstance/place, prepositional phrase, final; it is an obligatory adverbial). By the time he stops (circumstance/time, prepositional phrase, final; it is a heavy structure with restricted scope). Once (circumstance/time, adverb, medial; restricted scope). In his own words (stance/perspective/viewpoint, prepositional phrase, medial; placed near the quotation). Down…spine (circumstance/place/direction, prepositional phrase, final; heavy structure with restricted scope). Nearly 1,000 miles (circumstance/place/distance, noun phrase, final; appositive structure). Conversation: Once…weeks (circumstance/time/frequency, noun phrase or adverb phrase, final; limited scope over the verb). Really (stance/actuality/reality, adverb, medial; between verb and obligatory final adverbial). Just (circumstance/restrictive, adverb, medial; between the verb and obligatory final adverbial because it has scope over that final adverbial). Like a gab group (circumstance/manner/comparison, prepositional phrase, final; obligatory adverbial). Kind of (stance/epistemic/imprecision, adverb, medial; limited scope over the verb phrase). Around our little project (circumstance/place, prepositional phrase, final; obligatory adverbial). Like, like (stance/imprecision, adverb, initial).

Analyzing ESL Students’ Errors with Adverbials

  1. A period should follow changed, dividing the example into two sentences. This makes it clear that the adverbial for example belongs with the following sentence, not the preceding one.
  2. In spite of (preposition) cannot introduce an adverbial clause; can be replaced by although. However as a linking adverbial cannot occur in this position; it could be replaced by nevertheless. In the education can be replaced by in terms of education.
  3. Before 15 years is incorrect (fifteen years ago). Because should follow a comma to show that it is an adverbial with scope over the preceding clause and not begin a new sentence.
  4. So that to be free: so that cannot introduce an infinitive clause, but it can be replaced by so as or as to be (to be free).
  5. A period or colon should follow the word exaggerated to divide the clause to which it belongs from what follows. With my bike or car should be changed to on my bike or in my car. Since I came should be followed by a comma, not a period, since it has scope over the following clause.
  6. Even (add if to make it clear that it is a dependent adverbial clause): even if he doesn’t know you. For long time (for a long time) he doesn’t know you.

Different Types of Fronting

: fronting of predicative indep declarative clause: 2. Fronting of object indep decl cl: 1-3-4. Fronting of pred in an exclam: 5. Fronting of pred in a dep advl cl: 6. Rewrite: 1- we shall now describe this.. 2-Krishna may be all wise…3- I’d now committed such a blunder. 4- My son has such as sure…5- we are a very gullible lot (deleting what) 6-thouigh he is brave in facing adult audiences… Subject-verb inversion and subject-operator inversion. 2- is the high…compounds: S-V inv. 3- has been…tour: S-V or S-operator inv. 4- did he: S-op inv 5-interrupted Khalehla: S-V inv 6- is the tiem…feet: S-V or S-op inv. 7- are you: S-op inv. 8- had she: S-op inv. 9- can the…service: S-op inv. 10- stepped Captain Bierce: S-V inv. Conditions for inversions: 2-fronted predicative.3- degree expression 4-fronted adverbial of place or time. 5-reporting clause. 6- fronted adv of time. 7-wh-question. 8-hypothetical or tentative conditional clause. 9- yes/no question. 10- fronted adverbial of place. Conditions for inversion: 1-fronted adv of place, 2-fronted pred, 3-degree expression, 4- fronted advl of place or time, 5- reporting cl, 6-fronted advl time 7-wh-question 8-hypothetical or tentative conditional cl 9-yes/no cl 10-fronted adv place. Existential there: 1-subj 2- notional subj. 3a- place there; 3b: exist there. 4- exist. 5: F, T, T, F, T, F The structure of existential there clauses: 2- there + be + indefinite NP (contains postmodifier). 3- there+ be+ indef NP with no postmodifier. 4-there+ be+ indef NP (contains postmodifier)+ place or time adv. 5-there+ semi-modal + be+ indef NP 6-there + auxiliary+  be+  indef NP. 7- there+ be+ indef NP(with modifier) 8- there+ passive +to be+ indef NP 9-there + verb other than be + indef NP. 10- there + be + definite NP Focused element in it-cleft. 1-[it][is][the][goddess] [who pulls the string] S, 2- [it][is][you][who are lovely] S, 3-[it][was not][surprise][that he felt] Obj. 4-[it][was][on that journey][that we encountered Dr Saito]: adv. 5-[it][was][then][that she and the other 3 women did the rooms] advl. 6-[it][was not][food][that Buck and the huskies needed] obj.   Other special word order constructions: 1- (it him) DO before IO without to or for. 2- it-cleft 3- preface 4- normal wh-cleft- 5-NP tag. 6-demonstrative wh-cleft. 7-DO before IO with to or for 8-reverse wh-cleft. 9-obj pred before DO. 10-phrasal verb with obj before particle.Functional overview of conv grammar. How function shows up in conversation. shared context: deictic item:this, there; pers pron: I, it, that. Avoiding elaboration or specif of meaning: repeated use of the hedge like: like little bitty curls, like, I mean, General N and Pron: something, thing. Initial ellipsis: (It) Still wasn’t quite clear to me …Interactiveness: tag questions: …huh?, right? Are you? What do you got? Frequency of negation: I don’t know if this is- this doesn’t look as bad…; discourse markers you know, well, I mean. Real-time production: add-on strategy: I’ll take that with me, | I’ll update it in my system| and then I…one | and we’ll carry them back and forth. Vernacular range of expression: yeah, it’s real nice, they’re laying (standard:lying) down. Works out pretty good.  Grammar tailored to real-time construction. Dysfluencies, including incomplete utterances and syntactic blends. Sample answers. Repeat: I’m serious, like, like, that’s a lied. I just put a, a plug strip in here,. And she she said the the difference was…Syntactic blend: I think I’m –might blow dry it now, right? (I think I might blow…) What do you got? (what do you have? Or got?). Incomplete utterance: Here you figure it out. I’m going into-. In fact I’ve, what we should, that disk I gave you- that’s just-yeah. Hesitator:…uh, printer. Pause . Repair: Like, that’s what I thought you were, you wanted to do.