Cognitive and Learning Theories in Psychology
1. Learning Theories
Watson’s Theory (1913)
Watson’s theory centers on the prediction and control of behavior.
Main Cognitive Learning Theories:
- Thorndike’s Theory of Formulations
- Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
- Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
- Bandura’s Observational Learning
Thorndike’s Associationism
The earliest learning theory was associationism. Thorndike’s theory, rooted in Locke’s associationist principles, posits that associations apply to situations and reactions they cause. In essence, an individual responds to a given situation in a way deemed appropriate (or not) based on this association.
The Law of Effect
When a series of responses to a single state are associated with a positive experience for an individual, the likelihood of those responses resubmitting increases. Conversely, responses associated with discomfort are less likely to reoccur.
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s research unveiled a key concept: the reflex. This innate behavior involves an inevitable response to a change in the environmental situation. It represents a combination of stimulus and response factors. In his experiment with a dog, Pavlov rang a bell before feeding. As the dog became accustomed to this pairing, the bell alone (the conditioned stimulus) elicited salivation (the conditioned response) before the food was presented.
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Founded by Skinner and based on Thorndike’s work, operant conditioning occurs when a subject performs an activity to gain something in return.
Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
The key difference lies in the nature of the behavior:
- Operant Conditioning: The behavior is external; it impacts the world outside the individual. The performance of the behavior has an effect that increases the probability of the behavior reappearing under similar conditions.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Bandura’s theory presents a model of mutual determination between the environment, behavior, and personal factors. This more complex form of learning implies prior attention and memory.
2. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Piaget, a renowned psychologist, developed a theory to explain the mechanisms of intelligence. Key concepts include:
Key Concepts:
- Schemas: At each developmental stage, the mind utilizes schemas – organized sequences of actions repeatable in similar situations.
- Adaptation: Schemas develop through two processes:
- Assimilation: Integrating the environment into one’s existing understanding.
- Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to fit new information.
- Organization: The mind functions as an organized whole.
- Stages: Learning can accelerate or decelerate the process, but maturation takes time, as new structures build upon existing ones.
Stages of Development:
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
Newborns possess reflexes that later evolve into organized habits and perceptions. They develop sensory-motor intelligence, enabling them to manipulate objects.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
Representation begins with imitation. Language allows children to reconstruct their past and anticipate the future through verbal representation, shaping their thinking.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Children operate on concrete objects, discovering relationships that allow them to construct more complex schemas.
Formal Operational Stage (12-16 years)
Adolescents reason abstractly and consider possibilities. Hypothetical and conditional reasoning emerge.
3. Classical Theories of Memory
Behavioral Theory
Based on the empiricism of Locke and Hume, this theory views humans as a blank slate at birth. Learning involves forming associations between received elements. Memory retention depends on the quantity of stored information, and forgetting results solely from disuse. This rigid conception of memory overlooks the potential influences of emotion and affect.
Cognitive Theory
This more recent theory emphasizes the active nature of memory. Individuals construct their own memories, organizing, structuring, and interpreting them according to their cognitive maps. This selection process leads to the retention of certain aspects and the forgetting of others.
4. Sensation vs. Perception
Sensation is the process of capturing information through the senses. Perception involves transforming sensory and cognitive information into meaningful interpretations.
5. Cognitive Theory and Schemas
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory investigates how we process information, represent the world, and how these processes influence our behavior. It explains our ability to perceive through cognitive schemas, interpreting information similarly to a computer processing data.
Cognitive Schemas
Cognitive schemas are sets of data or knowledge stored in our memory. We use these schemas to interpret reality, integrate experiences, and organize knowledge.