Cold War Dynamics: Bipolar Rivalry and Post-WWII Realities
Cold War Definition and Periodization (1945-1991)
The Cold War period (1945-1991) was not uniform. It was characterized by voluntary and/or bound polarization around the two superpowers that emerged from World War II: the USA and the USSR. These two powers, with their respective blocs, maintained a rivalry throughout the period, explicitly defining each other as enemies with mutually exclusive systems. This rivalry was based on the premise that capitalism and communism could not coexist in the medium to long term, leading to the constant threat of open warfare. War remained a projected horizon throughout the period, prevented only by mutual deterrence.
The implementation of this premise resulted in a bipolar world order, attempting to draw countries globally into the sphere of influence of one superpower or the other. As time progressed, this became more rhetoric than reality. However, this rhetoric was significant from the outset; both powers sought by all means to avoid direct confrontation and accepted the division of the world that emerged from World War II. This stance was reflected in very conservative domestic policies within both blocs. Furthermore, the rhetoric of the Cold War, particularly the idea of imminent nuclear war, served as a highly effective mechanism for population control in both blocs until 1991.
Immediate Post-WWII Consequences
Several immediate consequences followed World War II:
- Demographic Consequences: Devastating losses, estimated at 40-60 million deaths, plus numerous displaced persons and refugees. Mortality distribution was uneven: ~20 million Soviet deaths (civilians and Red Army), ~6 million Polish deaths. Western casualties included ~600,000 French, ~500,000 British, and ~150,000 Americans. The Holocaust resulted in the systematic extermination of ~6 million Jews.
- Spatial Consequences: The conflict established de facto spheres of influence, solidifying the post-war geopolitical map without formal treaties.
- Economic Consequences: Industrial capacity was severely reduced by destruction and wartime production focus. Acute shortages of raw materials plagued post-war economies. Transportation systems were heavily damaged and largely unusable.
Soviet Response: Eastern Bloc Satellization
The year 1947 proved decisive regarding the USSR’s stance. The Yalta Agreement recognized a Soviet sphere of influence corresponding to areas liberated by the Red Army. However, the concurrently signed Declaration on Liberated Europe pledged to encourage free elections and the establishment of democratic governments. These agreements proved inconsistent in practice; where representative elections began, Communist parties often lost power.
The USSR’s response in 1947 was to initiate a process of forced satellization in these countries. Through intimidation and repression of non-communist groups, Moscow worked to consolidate communist power. This led to the effective satellization of nations including Poland, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, and culminated in events like the Prague coup in Czechoslovakia (1948). Contributing factors included collaboration with the USSR by some local elements and a degree of popular apathy, potentially stemming from perceptions of betrayal by Western powers.