Cold War Overview: Origins, Conflicts, and Key Events
What Was the Cold War?
The Cold War, a period of international tension following World War II, was marked by a persistent antagonism between the United States and the Soviet Union. Although never escalating to direct military conflict between the superpowers, it fueled a massive arms race and fostered a hostile global environment.
The Potsdam Conference
The third peace conference, held in Potsdam (1945), brought together new leaders (Atlee, Truman, and Stalin). They reached agreements on several aspects concerning Germany, including the return of annexed European territories, the separation of Austria, the dismantling of the German military, and the prosecution of Nazi leaders. The Oder-Neisse line was established as the boundary between Germany and Poland. Subsequent peace treaties with Germany’s other allies were prepared at the Paris Conference (1946).
The United Nations
Founded in 1945 at the San Francisco Conference, the UN replaced the League of Nations. With 46 founding states, its objectives included maintaining international peace and security, fostering cooperation among nations, rejecting the use of force, promoting non-interference in internal affairs, and upholding the right of peoples to self-determination. All member states are represented in the General Assembly, where a two-thirds majority is required for decision-making. The Security Council includes five permanent members with veto power.
Causes of World War II
The Roots of Conflict
The seeds of World War II can be traced to the post-World War I international order. The Treaty of Versailles, instead of fostering reconciliation, fueled resentment, particularly in Germany and Italy. The 1929 economic crisis further exacerbated the situation, contributing to the rise of fascism. Mussolini in Italy and Hitler in Germany pursued aggressive foreign policies and military expansion, justified by economic needs or historical prestige. An intense arms race further heightened pre-war tensions. Democracies, grappling with internal issues like unemployment and social unrest, adopted isolationist stances, further emboldening the authoritarian regimes.
The March to War
From the early 1930s, authoritarian regimes launched a series of aggressions:
- Japan sought to expand its territories at the expense of China.
- Italy occupied Ethiopia in 1935 and later invaded Albania.
- Italy and Germany intervened in the Spanish Civil War.
- Germany, aiming to create a vast empire, remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936, occupied Austria in 1938, and demanded the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia.
The Munich Conference (1938), convened by France and Britain to address German expansion, ultimately appeased Hitler, leading to the dismantling of Czechoslovakia.
Alliances and the Outbreak of War
Germany’s expansionist policy was supported by international treaties, including the Rome-Berlin Axis with Italy (1936, renewed in 1939 as the Pact of Steel) and the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan (1936). When Hitler demanded the Danzig Corridor in 1939, France and Britain pledged support to Poland. The Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) between Hitler and Stalin paved the way for the invasion of Poland, triggering declarations of war by France and Britain, marking the beginning of World War II.
The Iron Curtain Descends
The division between the two blocs solidified in 1947 with the Truman Doctrine, which denounced the establishment of communist regimes in Soviet-occupied countries and advocated for American intervention to contain the communist threat in Europe. This led to increased U.S. military presence in Europe and the Marshall Plan, an economic aid program aimed at promoting European reconstruction and mitigating the appeal of communism. The Soviet Union responded with the Zhdanov Doctrine, which condemned U.S. actions as a bid for European dominance. The world became divided by what Winston Churchill termed the ‘Iron Curtain.’ To solidify their alliances, the U.S. and its allies formed NATO in 1949, while the Soviet Union and its allies established the Warsaw Pact.