Colonial Expansion and World War I
The Cast of the World: The “Division of Africa”
From 1870, the colonization of Africa began. It was quick and brutal, resulting in total domination of the continent. The British and French had an advantage with bases established in Africa since the eighteenth century. Both countries dreamed of creating vast, continuous empires: the British from north to south, and the French from west to east.
The clash of interests between rival powers led to the Berlin Conference (1885), where rules and zones of occupation were decided.
The Occupation of Asia
Asia was occupied by Western European powers and other countries seeking expansion. The British annexed Burma and clashed with Russia for control of Afghanistan, later occupying Malaysia. France focused on Indochina. All colonial powers desired a presence in the lucrative Chinese market, forcing open trade through the Opium Wars.
The British Empire
By the late nineteenth century, Britain held the world’s largest colonial empire, spanning India and Africa. Their goal was to control maritime trade routes. India, their primary colony, had been exploited since its conquest began in the eighteenth century by the East India Company. The monarchy later assumed control, and Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India (1876).
The French Empire and Other Empires
The second largest colonial empire was French, primarily located in North Africa and Southeast Asia. Competition with the British Empire was fierce, especially in Africa. Other significant colonial powers included Russia, the Netherlands, Portugal, and, to a lesser extent, Germany, Italy, Belgium, and Spain.
The United States and Japan
The United States and Japan were the only two non-European powers to begin colonial expansion in the late nineteenth century. The United States expanded towards the Pacific and the Caribbean. Japan, backed by Britain, intervened to halt Russian advances in Manchuria and occupied the Kuril Islands, Korea, and Formosa (Taiwan).
The Great War: The War of Movement
German armies invaded France through Belgium and Luxembourg, aiming for a swift victory before turning their attention to the Russian front. Initially successful, this tactic was thwarted when French and English armies reorganized and halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne. On the Eastern Front, early German advances were countered by a Russian resurgence that reached the borders of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
The Trench Warfare
After the initial movements, the fronts stagnated. Trenches stretched from Switzerland to the North Sea on the Western Front, marking the beginning of a protracted war of attrition. The search for new allies to bolster troop numbers began. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies, while Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire sided with the Central Powers, leaving the war’s outcome uncertain. In 1916, the Germans launched an offensive at Verdun to break the French line.
The Crisis of 1917 and the End of the War
The Bolshevik Revolution triumphed in Russia in 1917. Preoccupied with internal affairs, the revolutionaries signed a peace treaty with Germany and withdrew from the war. Russia’s departure was offset by the United States’ entry into the war, following the sinking of the Lusitania by a German submarine. In 1918, on the Eastern Front, British, French, and Italian forces defeated Austria-Hungary and its allies. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires called for an armistice, halting the fighting. On the Western Front, Germany was defeated. The Armistice was signed on November 11, 1918, and a republic was proclaimed in Germany.
The War in the Rear
World War I was a novel conflict characterized by resource mobilization and total war, involving entire populations, both civilian and military. Advanced weaponry and transportation resulted in mass casualties and destruction. Combatants converted industries to arms manufacturing, borrowed money, and replaced male laborers with women. Modern propaganda techniques mobilized public opinion.
The Global Industrial Revolution
A series of technological and economic changes occurred first in eighteenth-century Britain. The Industrial Revolution was accompanied by demographic shifts, an agricultural revolution, and a revolution in transportation.
The French Revolution: 1789
The French Revolution provided the framework for liberal and democratic movements worldwide and solidified the concept of the nation.