Colonial Expansion in Africa and Asia: A Historical Overview

Colonial Expansion in Africa and Asia

Rapid Occupation of Africa

In 1884, only 15% of Africa was under European control. By 1902, this number had surged to 90%. By 1914, only Liberia and Abyssinia remained independent. The Berlin Conference was convened to divide Africa among European powers.

Expansion of Japan

Japan’s industrial output expanded rapidly in the late 19th century. It gained control of Korea and Manchuria, leading to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894. Japan’s victory turned these territories into satellites. Russia, feeling its interests in Asia threatened, engaged in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. The war ended with Russia recognizing Japan’s dominance.

American Expansionism

American expansionism focused on four key points:

  • Formation of a large naval base
  • Occupation of the Pacific
  • Hegemony in the Caribbean
  • Construction of the Panama Canal

Conflicts Between Powers

Egypt and the Suez Canal

The Suez Canal, built with French capital, held immense strategic and communication importance since 1869. Disputes between France and Britain led to a British protectorate over Egypt.

The Fashoda Incident

The Fashoda Incident refers to events in 1898 when France and Britain attempted to establish uninterrupted communication lines connecting their African colonies. This incident highlighted the tensions between European powers vying for control in Africa.

The Case of China and the Opium Wars

The Chinese government’s ban on Indian opium imports (which were exchanged for tea and silk) triggered the Opium Wars. Following these wars, Britain and France forced China into a series of unequal treaties. The outcomes included:

  • China ceding Hong Kong to the United Kingdom
  • Foreign powers gaining the right to establish their own settlements in China

In the 1880s, China was divided into five spheres of influence. In 1911, the Republic of China was proclaimed.

The Restoration of Spain

Following the failure of the First Republic, Alfonso XII lived in exile in Britain. Cánovas del Castillo, from the Liberal-Conservative Party, contacted him to restore the monarchy in Spain.

Consequences for the Colonized Population

The introduction of Western medicine led to a decline in mortality rates, while birth rates remained high. This resulted in a population boom, creating an imbalance between population and resources, a problem that persists today.

Economic Consequences

Colonial exploitation required the establishment of infrastructure. Ports, railways, and roads were built to facilitate the export of raw materials and agricultural products to the colonizing powers.

Political Consequences

The level of colonial dependence on the metropolis varied based on the administrative and cultural systems imposed.

Cultural Consequences

Imperialism led to the loss of indigenous identities and the imposition of the colonizers’ standards of conduct, education, and worldview.

Geopolitical Consequences

Political maps were redrawn with artificial boundaries that disregarded existing configurations, forcing the union or separation of tribal and ethnic groups.

Social Consequences

The European bourgeoisie (merchants, officials, and landowners) occupied the upper and middle echelons of colonial societies. In some cases, indigenous elites were assimilated and integrated into the upper classes. This occurred primarily with former elites, members of certain branches of the army, and colonial administration officials.

Imperialism and the Industrial Revolution

Imperialism is closely linked to the Industrial Revolution. Non-industrialized former colonial powers tended to lose their overseas territories.

Economic Reasons for Imperialism

  • The need for new territories to invest surplus capital. This capital found outlets in loans to indigenous populations, partnerships with the mother country, and financing infrastructure projects.
  • The search for regions to obtain cheap and abundant raw materials and energy. Colonies became suppliers for metropolitan industries.
  • The establishment of markets to ensure a monopoly for industrial products. Unskilled but cheap labor (sometimes slave labor) was utilized.

Colonialism was often linked to protectionist policies, with each country aiming to control colonies that supplied raw materials and consumed their industrial goods.

Demographic Causes

Between 1850 and 1900, the European population grew from 300 million to 450 million. Poor living conditions in industrialized nations drove many to seek a better life in the newly occupied territories. This population growth also affected Asian powers like Japan and continued until 1914.

Political Causes

Powers sought colonial hegemony through commercial and military control of land and sea routes, hindering their rivals’ expansion. This policy fueled tensions and conflicts that contributed to the prelude to World War I.

Scientific Causes

Geographical societies gained prominence, promoting exploration through conferences and expeditions. These expeditions, often presented as anthropological or biological, served to pave the way for military or economic expansion.

Ideological Causes

Nationalist, chauvinist, and racist ideologies were developed to justify territorial expansion, regardless of the consent of indigenous populations.

Models of Colonial Expansion

Colonies of Exploitation

These colonies provided raw materials and consumed metropolitan products, preventing industrialization.

Colonies of Settlement

These colonies served as outlets for European populations and enjoyed greater autonomy.

Legal Status

Colonies lacked indigenous governments and were directly administered by the metropolis. Protectorates theoretically retained an indigenous government. Territories were integrated into the metropolis, becoming overseas provinces.

Colonial Expansion in Asia

From the 16th century, the Portuguese and Dutch were active in Asia. In the 19th century, colonial activity intensified, expanding beyond coastal regions into the interior. Britain occupied India and neighboring areas, France controlled Indochina, and China was forced into trade agreements. The Netherlands expanded its presence in Indochina, while Russia and Japan competed in Siberia.

The Berlin Congress

Siberia.El: Two questions for discussion: Who is entitled to occupy Hinterland. “colonial empire continuous” north-south through England, France Mediterraneo-Atlantic