Common Fallacies in Reasoning: A Practical Analysis
Understanding Logical Fallacies
Fallacies of Ambiguity
Equivocation
The ambiguity arises because a term in the argument has multiple meanings.
Example: My neighbor is at the mechanic shop every day with his monkey. He must be a great animal lover.
Amphibology
The confusion stems from the grammatical structure of a premise in the argument.
Example: Have they arrested the murderer of your father?
Material Fallacies
Fallacies of Relevance
Ad Hominem Fallacy (“Against the Man”)
This fallacy involves attacking the person presenting an argument rather than addressing the argument itself.
Example: We cannot rely on this study about the effects of snuff on human health because the tobacco industry funded it.
Ad Baculum Fallacy (“The Stick”)
This fallacy appeals to threats or force to persuade someone.
Example: You have to drive respecting traffic rules, because otherwise you will be fined.
Ad Populum Fallacy (“The People”)
This fallacy uses the emotional state of the listeners to sway their opinion.
Example: How can you not believe in God? Can so many people be wrong?
Ad Misericordiam Fallacy (“A Mercy”)
This fallacy resorts to compassion in the absence of valid arguments.
Example: In a breathalyzer test – Agent, please do not punish me. If you do, and I lose my driver’s license, I will lose my job, and my family will end up in misery.
Ad Verecundiam Fallacy (“Respect”)
This fallacy defends an opinion by appealing to the prestige or authority of someone, instead of providing logical arguments.
Example: Homeopathy is an effective therapy because some doctors recommend it.
Ad Ignorantiam Fallacy (“To Ignorance”)
This fallacy argues for the existence or nonexistence of something based on a lack of evidence to the contrary.
Example: There is extraterrestrial life since no one has proved otherwise.
Fallacy of Tu Quoque (“You Too”)
This fallacy deflects criticism by pointing out that the accuser is also guilty of the same thing. It can be considered a type of ad hominem fallacy.
Example: Why should I quit smoking, doctor, if you smoke two packs a day?
Begging the Question
This fallacious reasoning presupposes the conclusion it aims to prove.
Example: Unemployment exists because there are no jobs for everyone.
Fallacies of Insufficient Data
These material fallacies arise from weak or lacking information, thus lacking probative value.
Inappropriate Generalization Fallacy
This is an induction that relies on a small number of premises.
Example: Since many robberies are committed in my neighborhood, I believe crime is a widespread social problem in my country.
Fallacy of False Test
This fallacy provides information but disregards information that contradicts the argument.
Example: This man is the culprit because research has proved that the bullets that killed the victim came from his gun. (Hiding the information that the accused was far from the scene of the murder at the time of the crime.)
Fallacy of False Cause
This fallacy presents a cause that is not the real cause.
Example: As of today, I will never sleep in a bed. Almost everyone dies in bed.