Communalism, Partition, 1857 Revolt, and Forest Dwellers in India
Communalism’s Growth in India
Q1. Examine the factors responsible for the growth of communalism in India.
Ans. Despite strenuous efforts by Congress leaders and rationalists, communalism persisted and ultimately led to the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan, based on the two-nation theory. While Jinnah is often associated with this theory, the British “Divide and Rule” policy played a significant role. This policy encouraged Sir Syed Ahmed Khan to advocate for Muslim rights. Lord Curzon’s division of Bengal in 1905, creating a Muslim-majority province, further fueled these sentiments. Iqbal also favored separate treatment for Muslims in 1930. The Hindu Mahasabha, established in 1916, also operated along communal lines. These factors contributed to the rise of communalist tendencies.
Women’s Experiences During the Partition
Q2. Analyze the experiences of women during the partition.
Ans. The partition was a harrowing period for women. They faced rape, abduction, and were often sold multiple times, forced into new lives with strangers in unfamiliar circumstances. Deeply traumatized, some eventually formed new family bonds. Their money and valuables were looted. Fearing their women would be violated, men sometimes killed their wives, daughters, and sisters.
Causes of the 1857 Revolt
Q7. What were the social, economic, religious, and military causes of the 1857 revolt?
Ans.
Economic Causes:
- Drain of wealth
- Destruction of Indian industries, trade, and commerce
- Exorbitant land revenue rates
- Resumption of Inami or rent-free lands
- Widespread unemployment and poverty
Social Causes:
- Maltreatment of Indians
- Interference in the social life of Indians
- Spread of Western education
- Propagation of Christianity
Military Causes:
- Unrest among Indian soldiers
- Increased ratio of Indian soldiers
- Faulty distribution of troops
- General Service Enlistment Act
- Greased cartridges
Transformation of Forest Dwellers’ Lives in the 16th-17th Centuries
Q8. How were the lives of forest dwellers transformed in the 16th-17th centuries?
Ans.
- The British encouraged forest clearance. Zamindars and Jotedars converted uncultivated lands into rice fields. For the British, expanding settled agriculture was crucial to increase land revenue, produce export crops, and establish an ordered society.
- The British viewed forest people as savage, impure, primitive, and difficult to govern. They believed forests needed to be cleared, settled agriculture established, and forest people “civilized” by abandoning hunting for agriculture.
- In the 1770s, the British pursued a brutal extermination policy, hunting and killing the Paharias. By the 1780s, Augustus Cleveland, the collector of Bhagalpur, proposed a policy of pacification. Paharia chiefs received annual allowances and were made responsible for their men’s conduct.
- Some Paharia chiefs refused these allowances, leading to continued complaints. The Paharias retreated into the mountains, insulating themselves from hostile forces and engaging in conflict with outsiders. Consequently, when Buchanan traveled through the region in the winter of 1880/1881, the Paharias viewed him with suspicion.
- The Santhals migrated into the area, clearing forests, cutting timber, plowing land, and cultivating rice and cotton. This led to conflict with the Paharias, as exemplified by the actions of Sindhu Manjhi.