Communication and Language: A Comprehensive Guide

Posted on Oct 13, 2024 in Language

Unit 1: Sounding the Bell

Communication

Communication is the exchange of messages between two or more people with a particular intention.

Verbal communication is established by linguistic signs. It may be oral or written.

Nonverbal communication is established through non-linguistic signs: mainly visual, gestural, and auditory.

Key Components of Communication

Issuer: Transmits information.
Receiver: Receives information.
Message: The information being conveyed.
Channel: The means of transmitting the message.
- Natural: Any of the five senses.
- Artificial: Television, telephone, computer, etc.

Types of Words

According to Lexeme

Lexeme: Provides the meaning of each word; it’s the root.
Simple: Consists of a single lexeme.
Composite: Comprised of two lexemes.

According to Morpheme

Morpheme: Provides only grammatical meaning.
Reflexive: Does not change the meaning of the lexeme.
Derivatives: Modify the lexical meaning of the lexeme.
- Prefixes: Placed before the stem.
- Suffixes: Placed after the stem.

Phrases

A phrase is a word or group of words with a unit of meaning that serves a specific function within a sentence. Every phrase has a compulsory core.

Core Functions in Different Phrases

Noun or Pronoun: Nucleus of a noun phrase (NP).
Verb: Nucleus of a verb phrase (VP).
Adjective: Nucleus of an adjectival phrase (AdjP).
Adverb: Nucleus of an adverbial phrase (AdvP).

When an NP is preceded by a preposition, it becomes a prepositional phrase (PP). In a PP, the preposition acts as a link (e) and the NP as the term (T).

Basic Sentence Structure

The two basic functions of a sentence are subject and predicate.

Subject: Always an NP.
Predicate: Always a VP.

Complements

Besides subject and predicate, phrases can function as complements.

NP: Can complement the nucleus of another NP or the nucleus of a VP.
AdjP: Complements the core of an NP, another AdjP, or a VP.
AdvP: Complements the nucleus of a VP.
PP: Can complement the core of any phrase (NP, VP, AdjP, AdvP).

Interjections

Interjections are words that correspond to invariant exclamatory sentences.

Unit 2: A Heated Debate

The Core of a Noun Phrase (NP)

The core of an NP is composed of:

Determiner
Noun
Complement (optional)

Structure of the Core NP

    NP
   /  \
Det  N  Complement
    /  \
 Art Noun AdjP/PP

Noun

A noun is a word that names objects, animals, places, people, or abstract realities.

Types of Nouns

Proper: Names unique beings that differ from those of the same species.
Common: Names beings and objects of the same class.
Concrete: Names beings or objects perceived by the senses.
Abstract: Names ideas or feelings not perceived by the senses.
Individual: Refers to a single person when in the singular.
Countable: Refers to realities that can be counted.
Uncountable: Refers to realities that cannot be counted but can be weighed or measured.

Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun.

Types of Pronouns

Personal: Refer to the people involved in communication.
Relative: Replace a noun (called the antecedent). Examples: that, which, who, whom, whose.
Demonstrative: Indicate proximity or distance. Examples: this, that, these, those.
Possessive: Indicate ownership. Examples: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
Numerals: Indicate an exact amount or an order.
Indefinite: Indicate an inaccurate amount.
Interrogative and Exclamatory: Used in questions or exclamations.

Unit 3: Computer Dreams

Determiners

Determiners are grammatical words that introduce and define the meaning of the noun they accompany. They agree with the noun in gender and number.

Types of Determiners

Articles:
- Definite: el, la, los, las
- Indefinite: un, una, unos, unas
Determinative Adjectives: Define the meaning of the noun. Include demonstratives, possessives, numerals, indefinites, interrogatives, and exclamatives.

Adjectives

An adjective is the nucleus of an adjectival phrase. It indicates a quality, feature, or property of the noun it modifies. It always agrees in gender and number with the noun.

Types of Adjectives

Explanatory: Notes a quality inherent to the noun.
Specifying: Signals a quality to differentiate the noun from others in its group.

Degrees of Adjectives

Positive: Expresses the quality without intensity.
Comparative: Compares the intensity of quality between two nouns.
- Superiority
- Equality
- Inferiority
Superlative: Expresses the quality in its maximum degree.
- Absolute
- Relative

Unit 5: Buy, Buy, Buy…

Verbs

A verb is a word that expresses, in time, an action, a process, or a state of a subject. It is the core of a VP.

Verb Properties

Person
Number
Time
Mode
Aspect

Person and Number

Person:
- First: Speaker(s)
- Second: Listener(s)
- Third: Neither speaker(s) nor listener(s)
Number: Singular and plural

Time

Indicates when the action happens: past, present, future, or conditional.

Mode

Indicative: Presents the action as sure and certain.
Subjunctive: Expresses doubt, fear, or desire.
Imperative: Expresses an order or request.

Aspect

Imperfect: The action is shown in progress.
Perfect: The action is shown as completed.

Non-Personal Verb Forms

Infinitive: Functions as a noun.
Gerund: Functions as an adverb.
Participle: Functions as an adjective.

Verb Conjugation

The ordered set of all verb forms. There are three conjugations: -ar (1st), -er (2nd), and -ir (3rd).

Regular and Irregular Verbs

Regular verbs follow the same conjugation patterns as their model verbs. Irregular verbs deviate from these patterns.

Compound Verbs and Verbal Phrases

Compound Verb: Consists of the auxiliary verb “haber” + past participle.
Passive Voice: Consists of the auxiliary verb “ser” + past participle.
Verbal Phrase: Consists of a verb + an NP or PP.
Verbal Periphrasis: Consists of a conjugated verb + a nexus + infinitive, participle, or gerund. There are two types:
- Modal: Express the speaker’s attitude towards the action (e.g., obligation, probability).
- Aspectual: Report on the progress of the action (e.g., inchoative, durative, resultative).

Unit 6: The Story of Milk

Adverbs

An adverb is an invariable word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It is the core of an AdvP.

Classes of Adverbs

Place: here, there, near, far, inside, outside, etc.
Time: today, yesterday, tomorrow, now, then, etc.
Manner: well, badly, quickly, slowly, etc.
Quantity: much, little, more, less, etc.
Affirmation: yes, indeed, truly, etc.
Negation: no, never, not, etc.
Doubt: maybe, perhaps, possibly, etc.

Prepositions

Prepositions are invariable words that link words or phrases. Examples: a, ante, bajo, con, contra, de, desde, en, entre, hacia, hasta, para, por, según, sin, sobre, tras.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are invariable words that connect words, phrases, or sentences.

Unit 8: Sentimental Chronicle

Subject and Predicate

Subject: An NP
Predicate: A VP

The core of the NP subject agrees in number and person with the core of the VP predicate.

Elliptical Subject

When the grammatical subject is not explicitly stated but can be inferred from the verb ending.

Impersonal Sentences

Sentences without a grammatical subject. Examples include sentences with verbs referring to weather phenomena, the verb “haber” (when not used as an auxiliary), and the verbs “ser” and “estar” when referring to time.

Verbal Predicate

When the core of the VP is a copulative verb (ser, estar, parecer), it functions as a predicate. It is accompanied by a phrase that functions as an attribute.

The copula has no meaning on its own.
Phrases that can function as attributes include AdjP, NP, and PP.

Non-Verbal Predicate

When the core of the VP is not a copulative verb, it functions as a verbal predicate. It can be accompanied by complements such as:

Direct Object (CD)
Indirect Object (CI)
Adverbial (CC)
Predicate Complement (Cpred)
Regimen Verb Complement (CRV)
Agent Complement (CAg) (in passive sentences)

Unit 4: Literature and Literary Language

Features of Literature

The purpose of literature is not solely practical but also aesthetic.
Literary language uses literary figures.
Literature presents a fictional world.

Literary Genres

Lyric: Expresses the sender’s mood, primarily in verse.
- Ode
- Elegy
- Eclogue
Narrative: A narrator tells a story, typically in prose.
- Epic
- Chanson de geste
- Novel
- Short story
Drama: Presents action through dialogue, written for performance.
- Tragedy
- Comedy
- Drama

Literary Figures

Figures of speech enhance literary language.

Verse

Verse is characterized by musicality and rhythm, determined by the number of syllables and rhyme.

Metric Syllables

Add a syllable for words ending in an accented vowel.
Subtract a syllable for proparoxytone words.

Metric Licenses

Sinalefa: Two vowels at the end and beginning of adjacent words count as one syllable.
Umlaut: A diphthong is split into two syllables.
Synaeresis: Two vowels forming a hiatus are counted as one syllable.

Types of Verses

Short verses (2-8 syllables)
Long verses (9+ syllables)

Rhyme

Consonant: Vowels and consonants match after the last stressed vowel.
Assonant: Only vowels match after the last stressed vowel.

Stanza

A group of verses forming a unit.

Poem

A set of verses with complete meaning. Can be strophic (with stanzas) or non-strophic.