Communication, Language, and Sentence Structure
Unit 1: Communication
Communication is the act of transmitting information.
Elements of Communication
- Issuer: The source of the information.
- Recipient: The receiver of the information.
- Message: The information content.
- Code: A system of signs understood by both sender and receiver.
- Channel: The medium through which the message is transmitted (e.g., satellite, hardware).
- Situation: Shared context that helps determine meaning.
- Context: Extralinguistic circumstances surrounding the message.
Functions of Communication
- Expressive: Expressing attitudes and feelings (e.g., “Oh, what pain I feel!”).
- Appellate: Calling attention (e.g., “Pedro! Wait.”).
- Informative: Reporting information (e.g., “Peter is my cousin.”).
- Phatic: Confirming communication works (e.g., “Can you hear me?”).
- Metalinguistic: Clarifying meanings (e.g., “‘Key’ is a feminine noun.”).
Language
- Language: The ability to communicate.
- Language: A system of communication.
- Dialect: A particular form of a language specific to a region or social group.
- Speech: An individual’s unique way of speaking.
Unit 2: Linguistic Signs
A linguistic sign consists of:
- Signifier: The physical and visible part of the sign.
- Signified: The concept or idea represented by the signifier.
Properties of Linguistic Signs
- Arbitrary: The relationship between signifier and signified is not inherent.
- Referential: Signs refer to objects or concepts.
- Immutable for the speaker: A speaker cannot individually change the meaning of a sign.
- Changeable over time: The meaning of signs can evolve (e.g., “mouse”).
- Linear: Signs are arranged in a sequential order.
- Articulated: Units (phonemes and morphemes) combine to form meaningful units.
Double Articulation
- Phonemes: Meaningless and indivisible units of sound.
- Morphemes: Units that carry meaning.
- Lexemes: Units with lexical meaning.
- Grammatical Morphemes: Units that convey grammatical information (e.g., gender, number, person).
Word Formation
- Simple Words: Consist of a single morpheme or a lexeme and a grammatical morpheme.
- Compound Words: Formed by combining two or more lexemes.
- Derived Words: Formed by adding affixes to change grammatical category and meaning.
- Parasyntetic Words: Formed by combining two lexemes and a morpheme.
- Acronyms: Formed from the initial letters of a phrase (e.g., SA = Sociedad AnĂ³nima).
- Initialisms: Formed from the initial letters of a phrase, pronounced letter by letter (e.g., UFO = Unidentified Flying Object).
Denotation and Connotation
- Denotation: The literal or primary meaning of a word (e.g., “mouse” – animal).
- Connotation: The associated or secondary meaning of a word (e.g., “mouse” – computer device).
Unit 3: Sentences
Semantically, a sentence is the minimum unit of communication with meaning.
Agreement between subject and predicate involves number and person.
Sentence Types by Intention
- Declarative: Expresses a statement.
- Interrogative: Asks a question.
- Exclamatory: Expresses strong emotion.
- Imperative: Gives a command or makes a request.
- Hesitant: Expresses doubt or probability.
- Optative: Expresses a wish or desire.
Sentence Types by Structure
- Simple: Contains one verb.
- Compound: Contains two or more verbs.
Sentence Types by Predicate
- Copular: Uses linking verbs like “be,” “seem,” or “appear.”
- Predicative: Uses non-copular verbs.
- Transitive: Requires a direct object.
- Intransitive: Does not require a direct object.
- Active: The subject performs the action.
- Passive: The subject receives the action.
- Reflexive: The subject performs the action on itself.
- Reciprocal: Multiple subjects perform the action on each other.
Unit 4: Noun Phrases (I)
Types of Phrases
- Nominal Phrase: Noun-based.
- Verbal Phrase: Verb-based.
- Adjectival Phrase: Adjective-based.
- Adverbial Phrase: Adverb-based.
- Prepositional Phrase: Preposition + phrase.
Special Cases of Nouns
- Common Gender Nouns: Require an article or adjective to specify gender (e.g., “the athlete”).
- Epicene Nouns: Have one form for both genders.
- Ambiguous Gender Nouns: Changing the article doesn’t change the meaning (e.g., “the sea”).
Adjective Position and Meaning
- Specifying Adjective: Essential for understanding the noun’s meaning.
- Explanatory Adjective: Adds extra information but isn’t essential for understanding.
Unit 5: Noun Phrases (II)
Pronoun Types
- Deictic Pronouns: Specify location or distance (e.g., “this,” “that”).
- Anaphoric Pronouns: Refer to a previously mentioned noun.
- Cataphoric Pronouns: Refer to a noun that will be mentioned later.
Classes of Pronouns
- Demonstrative
- Possessive
- Indefinite
- Numeral
- Interrogative/Exclamatory
Unit 6: Verbs
Verbs can be analyzed:
- Semantically
- Syntactically
- Morphologically
Verb Morphemes
- Lexeme
- Grammatical Morphemes:
- Person
- Number
- Tense: Indicates when the action takes place.
- Mood: Expresses the speaker’s attitude.
- Aspect: Refers to the duration or completion of the action.
- Voice: Indicates whether the subject performs the action.
Types of Verbs
- Lexical Verbs: Have full meaning.
- Auxiliary Verbs: Do not have independent meaning.
- Copulative Verbs: Link the subject and the predicate.
- Predicative Verbs: Transitive (require a direct object), intransitive (do not require a direct object), pronominal, reflexive, reciprocal.
- Regular Verbs
- Irregular Verbs
Periphrastic Verbal Constructions
Constructions formed by at least two verbs, an auxiliary verb and a main verb.