Communication, Language, and Sentence Structure

Posted on Oct 6, 2024 in Language

Unit 1: Communication

Communication is the act of transmitting information.

Elements of Communication

  • Issuer: The source of the information.
  • Recipient: The receiver of the information.
  • Message: The information content.
  • Code: A system of signs understood by both sender and receiver.
  • Channel: The medium through which the message is transmitted (e.g., satellite, hardware).
  • Situation: Shared context that helps determine meaning.
  • Context: Extralinguistic circumstances surrounding the message.

Functions of Communication

  • Expressive: Expressing attitudes and feelings (e.g., “Oh, what pain I feel!”).
  • Appellate: Calling attention (e.g., “Pedro! Wait.”).
  • Informative: Reporting information (e.g., “Peter is my cousin.”).
  • Phatic: Confirming communication works (e.g., “Can you hear me?”).
  • Metalinguistic: Clarifying meanings (e.g., “‘Key’ is a feminine noun.”).

Language

  • Language: The ability to communicate.
  • Language: A system of communication.
  • Dialect: A particular form of a language specific to a region or social group.
  • Speech: An individual’s unique way of speaking.

Unit 2: Linguistic Signs

A linguistic sign consists of:

  • Signifier: The physical and visible part of the sign.
  • Signified: The concept or idea represented by the signifier.

Properties of Linguistic Signs

  • Arbitrary: The relationship between signifier and signified is not inherent.
  • Referential: Signs refer to objects or concepts.
  • Immutable for the speaker: A speaker cannot individually change the meaning of a sign.
  • Changeable over time: The meaning of signs can evolve (e.g., “mouse”).
  • Linear: Signs are arranged in a sequential order.
  • Articulated: Units (phonemes and morphemes) combine to form meaningful units.

Double Articulation

  • Phonemes: Meaningless and indivisible units of sound.
  • Morphemes: Units that carry meaning.
  • Lexemes: Units with lexical meaning.
  • Grammatical Morphemes: Units that convey grammatical information (e.g., gender, number, person).

Word Formation

  • Simple Words: Consist of a single morpheme or a lexeme and a grammatical morpheme.
  • Compound Words: Formed by combining two or more lexemes.
  • Derived Words: Formed by adding affixes to change grammatical category and meaning.
  • Parasyntetic Words: Formed by combining two lexemes and a morpheme.
  • Acronyms: Formed from the initial letters of a phrase (e.g., SA = Sociedad Anónima).
  • Initialisms: Formed from the initial letters of a phrase, pronounced letter by letter (e.g., UFO = Unidentified Flying Object).

Denotation and Connotation

  • Denotation: The literal or primary meaning of a word (e.g., “mouse” – animal).
  • Connotation: The associated or secondary meaning of a word (e.g., “mouse” – computer device).

Unit 3: Sentences

Semantically, a sentence is the minimum unit of communication with meaning.

Agreement between subject and predicate involves number and person.

Sentence Types by Intention

  • Declarative: Expresses a statement.
  • Interrogative: Asks a question.
  • Exclamatory: Expresses strong emotion.
  • Imperative: Gives a command or makes a request.
  • Hesitant: Expresses doubt or probability.
  • Optative: Expresses a wish or desire.

Sentence Types by Structure

  • Simple: Contains one verb.
  • Compound: Contains two or more verbs.

Sentence Types by Predicate

  • Copular: Uses linking verbs like “be,” “seem,” or “appear.”
  • Predicative: Uses non-copular verbs.
  • Transitive: Requires a direct object.
  • Intransitive: Does not require a direct object.
  • Active: The subject performs the action.
  • Passive: The subject receives the action.
  • Reflexive: The subject performs the action on itself.
  • Reciprocal: Multiple subjects perform the action on each other.

Unit 4: Noun Phrases (I)

Types of Phrases

  • Nominal Phrase: Noun-based.
  • Verbal Phrase: Verb-based.
  • Adjectival Phrase: Adjective-based.
  • Adverbial Phrase: Adverb-based.
  • Prepositional Phrase: Preposition + phrase.

Special Cases of Nouns

  • Common Gender Nouns: Require an article or adjective to specify gender (e.g., “the athlete”).
  • Epicene Nouns: Have one form for both genders.
  • Ambiguous Gender Nouns: Changing the article doesn’t change the meaning (e.g., “the sea”).

Adjective Position and Meaning

  • Specifying Adjective: Essential for understanding the noun’s meaning.
  • Explanatory Adjective: Adds extra information but isn’t essential for understanding.

Unit 5: Noun Phrases (II)

Pronoun Types

  • Deictic Pronouns: Specify location or distance (e.g., “this,” “that”).
  • Anaphoric Pronouns: Refer to a previously mentioned noun.
  • Cataphoric Pronouns: Refer to a noun that will be mentioned later.

Classes of Pronouns

  • Demonstrative
  • Possessive
  • Indefinite
  • Numeral
  • Interrogative/Exclamatory

Unit 6: Verbs

Verbs can be analyzed:

  • Semantically
  • Syntactically
  • Morphologically

Verb Morphemes

  • Lexeme
  • Grammatical Morphemes:
    • Person
    • Number
    • Tense: Indicates when the action takes place.
    • Mood: Expresses the speaker’s attitude.
    • Aspect: Refers to the duration or completion of the action.
    • Voice: Indicates whether the subject performs the action.

Types of Verbs

  • Lexical Verbs: Have full meaning.
  • Auxiliary Verbs: Do not have independent meaning.
  • Copulative Verbs: Link the subject and the predicate.
  • Predicative Verbs: Transitive (require a direct object), intransitive (do not require a direct object), pronominal, reflexive, reciprocal.
  • Regular Verbs
  • Irregular Verbs

Periphrastic Verbal Constructions

Constructions formed by at least two verbs, an auxiliary verb and a main verb.