Communication Theories: From Hypodermic to Functionalist
Hypodermic Needle Theory
The Hypodermic Needle Theory, the first theory to explain mass communication, posits that mass media messages are like injections that penetrate the audience’s subconscious. This powerful “shot” leaves recipients unable to separate themselves from the message, reacting in the way the sender intended. A specific message always corresponds to a specific action.
Originating in the 1940s and based on behavioral psychology, this theory suggests that each stimulus corresponds to a response. This approach assumes:
- The media has the power to influence people, surpassing the influence of any other community institution.
- Recipients lack the ability to critically evaluate messages and cannot reject or distance themselves from them.
The Hypodermic Needle Theory emphasizes the sender’s power, while the receiver plays a passive role, limited to receiving and reacting. Ultimately, the sender achieves the desired effect.
Agenda Setting
Agenda Setting is a consequence of the Hypodermic Needle Theory. It suggests that while media may not dictate specific opinions, it determines the topics of discussion. By controlling the agenda, the media inevitably shapes public discourse.
Frankfurt School and Critical Theory
Developed in the late 1950s and 1960s, Critical Theory, associated with the Frankfurt School, opposes the Functionalist perspective on media. Applying a Marxist perspective, these theorists argue that media owners, due to their economic power, can manipulate and influence recipients. Like the proletariat, the audience is powerless to defend against the messages they receive. This theory highlights the economic structure composed of two social classes:
- Economic Structure: The base, formed by the capitalist system.
- Superstructure: The ideological reflection of the economic structure, comprised of social values that justify and reinforce the division of social classes.
The mass media, driven by the capitalist interests of the economic structure, act as channels for the ideological superstructure. They promote values that encourage recipients to accept their oppression within the economic system.
Alignment occurs when individuals cease to think critically about their own interests, losing awareness and repeating thoughts that may even lead them to defend ideals contrary to their own benefit.
Cultural Industry
Similar to Hypodermic and Functionalist theorists who drew inspiration from natural science and industry, Critical Theory uses the economic model as its theoretical framework. Frankfurt School thinkers argue that when an object or art form is removed from its original context, it loses its inherent value, becoming a product of mass consumer culture.
Functionalist Theory of Communication
Functionalism emerged in the U.S. during the late 1940s and 1950s, coinciding with the first scholarly research on communication. This approach, often called “administrative research,” evaluates whether a message fulfills its intended function. Two key aspects are considered:
- Ideological Assessment: Determining whether the message’s intention is functional or dysfunctional for the current societal context.
- Efficiency: Assessing whether the message effectively fulfills its intended role.
For example, the function of advertising is to sell, even if it promotes dysfunctional values that harm the recipient. Entertainment programs featuring children may be considered functional in terms of viewership, but dysfunctional if they prioritize outsmarting others over education and skill development.
Functionalist theorists advocate for preserving the social system, aligning with the capitalist structure and the technological dominance that implies the supremacy of certain countries over others.
They also highlight the contaminating function of mass media, particularly television, as it hinders direct participation in social institutions.
Functionalist Communication Scheme
Harold Lasswell’s (1948) model of communication analyzes the act of communication by answering the following questions:
- Who? (Sender)
- Says what? (Message)
- In which channel? (Medium)
- To whom? (Receiver)
- With what effect? (Feedback)
By understanding the audience, the sender can regulate the response. This understanding led to the emergence of audience evaluation and ratings in the 1960s.
Marketing further refines this approach by segmenting audiences to better understand them and achieve the desired response. Audiences can be grouped based on various factors related to the consumption of a specific product or service.