Comprehensive Analysis of Special Education: Approaches, History, and Integration

Posted on Aug 25, 2024 in Social sciences

UNIT 1: CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION THROUGH THE DEVELOPMENT OF ITS APPROACHES

1. Framework and Definition: Introductory Outline

The content of education has been expanded with contributions from a little over two centuries on educational care for students with disabilities. The DC Technology Education practices share a common approach with the concept of science, aiming to explain and describe training activities and optimize them. They are normative because they establish rules for this purpose.

DC Education can only be understood as an open system in a dynamic relationship internally and externally. Within this complex and open system lies differential pedagogy and, within it, special education, taking into account the subjective differences of human personality.

The expansion of special education has been consolidated, and curriculum content is set around the object of study: subjects with Special Educational Needs (SEN). Special Education is a field of practice and knowledge at the crossroads of several disciplines: medical, pedagogical, psychological, and social, among others. All contribute to the analysis of some dimension of the subject and the development and effective implementation of different consistent educational interventions. They deepen knowledge of subject characteristics, diagnosis, and differentiated psycho-educational intervention, giving meaning to the methods of diagnosis and educational interventions in individuals with intellectual disabilities.

2. Historical Perspective

From a historical perspective, three possible approaches can be identified:

• As deliberate practice (16th century)
• Linked to the establishment and development of specific educational institutions dedicated to such children (17th century)
• As a branch of pedagogy

In each period, a certain attitude has prevailed, influenced by a historical factor or a dominant ideology. Wolfensberger proposed a classification scheme of ideologies: the elimination of deviant individuals, segregation, changing the status of maladjustment, and prevention.

2.1. Segregation

Segregation tends to regard the failure of an individual as a disease, causing the exclusion of any individual deviating from the normal process. This ideology has highlighted three streams of activity:

a) Medical Approach: Poverty is understood as a pathology, diagnosis is made from medical and psychological variables, and especially based on a pseudo-model, the “normal” person.

The most important consequences of this model are the awareness of the shortcomings linked to psycho variables, and the association of pathology with disease has prompted the use of medical treatment.

b) Categorization: It considers the characteristics of the poor as homogenous, uniform, and stable, not paying attention to individual differences or even the nature of the deficiency. It has created a typology that seeks to label and classify individuals to process them by categories. The most important consequence is at the level of social impacts; it has also created a system of providing educational services separate from the regular education system.

c) Institutionalization: The organization of service provision for disabled persons is the one with more direct practical implications. Institutionalizing a handicapped person refers to placing them in an organized system of special education, which had a twofold impact: increasing the stigma of the individual and isolating them. Institutionalization has been criticized.

2.2. Change of Status of Maladjustment

Maladjustment is often used to treat three approaches: standardization, integration, and mainstreaming, sharing the same basic belief: the poorly adapted individual must adapt to society and vice versa.

Considered to arise from the ideology of segregation because it has emerged as a reaction to it, it does not lose sight of the notion of children with SEN behaving equally exceptionally, with a social obligation to help them. This is not to cure but to adapt. Treatment tends to increase the degree of adaptation of the poorly adjusted pupil to the regular education environment and puts much emphasis on minimizing the stigma.

2.3. Prevention

Prevention is the establishment of conditions allowing the full integration of all, removing the label. Educational practices are established based on the child’s needs.

The main objective is to integrate special education into the regular education system. The goal is not to normalize the child but to develop integrated modes of participation appropriate to each child.

This ideology involves two streams:

a) The Psychology Approach: Based on the principle that all children can learn and the educational system should enable the primary purpose of the performance of each individual, it can spread to different levels and ways. Innovations are assumed established for regular education, such as identification, flexible curriculum, and so on, to make possible the participation of all.

Two major topics to be discussed were:

• How to teach: Siegel’s work identifies problems and designs a set of teaching techniques for resolution that should be taught to teachers to implement them.
• Creation of special services for all children: Reynolds & Balow, relying on the notion of the psycho-pedagogical system, refer to an integrated set of procedures used to achieve educational goals.

Special education would be a generic term that covers all specialized forms of education that would ordinarily not be offered by teachers in regular classes. Teachers should be able to interpret the variables that produce an interaction between psycho-system elements. Specialist services would be offered to all children.

b) The Socio-pedagogical Approach: Focuses on the social dimension of education; handicapped children are special in our society, which has decided to treat them differently. The school creates the inadequacies and deficiencies in defining performance criteria that certain students cannot reach.

3. Terminology Perspective

• Curative Education (Germany 1891): At first, the words used were pedagogical support and pedagogical assistance. Curative Pedagogy considered deficits from an interdisciplinary perspective.
• Therapeutic Pedagogy (Spain 1891): Haselmann defined it as the doctrine of instruction, education, and assistance to all children whose development is hampered psychosomatically constantly for individual and social factors.

Straus sees it as a science that aims at educating children who suffer delays or disruptions to give their development, which is based on medical knowledge about the causes and treatment of physical and mental defects in childhood.

They defend the eminently practical nature and the need to plan educational treatment on a coherent theory.

• Special Education: Zavalloni defined it as the science of psychological difficulties of the retarded and the disruptions of any kind in the biological and psychosocial development of children and youth seen in the educational and didactic perspective. It would be part of the pedagogy that studies special education as a specific mode.
• Remedial Education: Bonbas defined it as the action might lead to humans engaged in a specific learning event, the conclusion to which this act tends. Goals should be designed taking into consideration each child’s deficits.
• Special Education (Anglo-Saxon countries): Appears on the understanding that any corrective action is being done on the special difficulties that students attending school under the present normal school learning. According to UNESCO, a form of education for those who do not reach or are impossible to reach through normal educational activities, educational levels, social and other age-appropriate, and are intended to promote progress toward those levels.

4. The Movement of Standardization

4.1. Introduction: Its Origins

The standardization movement has its origins in the ’60s when there was a movement in Europe rejecting segregated special education schools due to a better understanding of reality, an increase in economic and technical change in society’s attitudes towards a more humanitarian approach, and associations that demanded respect for the civil and human rights of such persons.

A follow-up after-school revealed that students met goals segregated at or below the integrated. This highlighted the need to adopt a new strategy: standardization.

The principle of normalization was born in Scandinavia, in the belief that the poor should have the same rights and obligations as other citizens. In 1985 the normalization principle raises several questions: Where and how to integrate, what are the choices and possible roles for these people in society, and the premise that there is always a possibility of participation for the disabled. Standardization does not mean converting deficient individuals into normal people but reaching normalization of conditions in their lives.

4.2. Formulation of Standardization

Its formulation is due to several authors:

• Bank-Mikkelsen: Defined as allowing the mentally retarded to lead an existence as close to normal as possible. This statement is specific to the field of intellectual deficiency and implies a primary concern for the result. To describe normalization, it is necessary to distinguish the general living conditions (housing conditions, work, and leisure) and treatment (special services within the framework of general services).
• Bengt Nirje: Refers to the term as the improved quality of life experienced by children and retarded adults. Puts the emphasis on the means and methods. It places the poor within reach of all lifestyles and daily life conditions as similar as possible to normal circumstances. The company should know and respect the poor as far as possible to reduce what has been segregated.
• Wolf Wolfensberger: Provides the following preliminary considerations: This principle could be generalized to all persons with disabilities; could contemplate ways and results, and encompass many previously unconnected concepts and theories.

It proposes the definition: The use of regulatory means as possible from the cultural point of view to establish and/or maintain personal behaviors and characteristics that are in fact more policy alternatives. Assessment of the social role of the handicapped person, referring to the cultural values of a society.

4.3. Final Considerations

In the 70s, the concept of normalization began leading to widespread changes in social attitudes and trends in the design of services for the handicapped. It aims to enjoy a normal life. The principle of normalization is the philosophical basis and a final goal of integration. Normalization is the end, integration the method.

For Nirje, it is essential to understand the vital needs that can be satisfied with their integration.

Wolfensberger distinguishes between complete, partial, and gradual normalization.

Social integration is a corollary of normalization. Standardization progress is identified and assumes that everyone can move forward and progress.

They agree that normalization would be achieved largely through a continuum of services and programs capable of accommodating the highly individualized needs of the handicapped. Standardization is one of the basic principles underlying the current understanding of special education.

5. Evolution of the Object of Study

Special education is the education of children with specific SEN who are assessed and set in the Educational Assessment (EA) process and not outside it.

Two basic principles in current legislation are: The right to education for all citizens and the consideration that the aims of education are the same for everyone. We must bear in mind the existence of children who need teaching aids and services less common. Treating a child’s needs is to approach the goals. SEN contemplated forming a set of actions aimed at making specific adaptations of the curriculum and providing specific means of access to the curriculum.

The notion of SEN underlies several important conceptual changes. When we say handicapped students, it means that the difficulties are the subject, and the educational system is less committed; with the term student with SEN, we have difficulties of interactive origin, which are relative, dependent on their own shortcomings and the environment. We then give the school system all those resources and priority that some students need.

Narrower SEN is an open issue since there are many.

Garanto indicates the predominant organizational, intellectual, psycho-emotional, developmental, socio-cultural, and gifted.

Janitor refers to exceptional children and nuances between retarded, handicapped, impaired learning, emotional, language, and bypassing multi-deficient autistic and gifted.

Hobbs has analyzed SEN students to achieve their full integration.

5.2. Deficit, Disability, and Handicap

Deficit, Disability, and Handicap are terms to qualify. The triple origin of this approach lies in the work of Stein and Susser, which distinguished the organizational dimension (Deficit), the functional (disability), and social (handicap). Later works such differences have been extended to all sorts of shortcomings:

• Deficiency or abnormality: The loss or temporary or permanent malformation of an organ, or mental function psychic structure, physiological or anatomical. The externalization of a pathological state objective, observable, and measurable, that can be diagnosed. To emphasize its proximity to the notions of inadequate medical and first, their association with a deviation from normal.
• Disability or incapacity: Restriction or lack of ability to perform a task in the manner considered normal. Loss or reduction in functional achievements. Deficit reflects the impact from the standpoint of performance and capacity of the individual.
• Handicap or disability: A disadvantage resulting from a deficit or disability which hinders the normal role of the individual. Constitutes a limitation or impediment to practice in the environment they live in the roles they perform other individuals. Discrepancy between the achievements and what is expected of him.

The deficiency is no longer static but dynamic, looking from a situation intrinsic, extrinsic, objective, and above all social.

6. Current Vision of Special Education

The deficiency is viewed from a perspective that allows for differences: triple deficit, disability, and handicap. The passage of an ideology based on the concept of Deficit to one founded on disability has been a decisive step.

The current emphasis is on the social context, with the notion of handicap.

From the perspective of educational practice, it is necessary to define the educational elements needed to carry out the task. An expert group of UNESCO established that the objectives of special education are similar to those of general education, to enable the maximum individual development of intellectual, academic, and social skills. They differ in the type of children to which it is intended and the methods used. Start the integration stage.

In Spain, the General Education Law (70) lays the foundations of Special Education as a learning process, and you see the integration concept.

Within this current, the National Plan for Special Education is developed and promulgated the Law on Social Integration of Disabled People (82), which defines the US as an integral, flexible, and dynamic process designed for custom application and understands the different levels and degrees of the education system, particularly those considered mandatory and free, designed to achieve full social integration of disabled people.

In Spain, the USA can be defined as the formation process of integrating the various guidelines and educational activities and hospitality rehabilitated as custom application is required to overcome deficiencies and inadequacies and the full social integration. Sets characteristic features: It is a complex process involving multiple components, integrated and inclusive.

Currently, the U.S. regards the system of educational programs and services which serves the poor to develop their potential.

The Warnock Report is considered as an educational aid in certain stages of a student’s school career is in a continuum of supply, ranging from temporary support to the ongoing adaptation of the curriculum. The U.S. is the satisfaction of a child with SEN to come as close as possible to achieving the aims of education.

Special education should be understood as a continuum of services. The advantage of this design is that it opens new possibilities to care for handicapped children in mainstream schools through appropriate changes in them.

Currently, the U.S. can be considered a kind of education and treatments added to the education normally conducted with teachers of mainstream classes in mainstream schools, as all resources to ensure the adequacy of the response SEN education of pupils in the least restrictive environment possible.

UNESCO also makes reference only to the media and the disadvantaged. Definitions seen several common elements: type of education to look to be recognized as a regular system support, its centerpiece is the adequacy of the educational response to the special needs of each student, their purpose is to full integration into society and aims at the harmonious development of personal skills for the disabled, through an adaptation of the requirements.

ITEM 2: SCHOOL INTEGRATION

With integration, the existence of the poor is accepted as a different way of being an individual within a pluralistic social context.

Integration is based on an ideology of normalization and starts with being different. Integrity is not uniform; it is not treated equally to children with very different capabilities; it is to place handicapped children’s university in regular classes, forgetting to provide support and resources.

For integration to be a fact, it must cover all sectors of the disabled person’s life and will not be effective if not born of genuine human solidarity.

The road to integration necessarily passes through three core business areas:

1. Area of Primary Activities: Affecting the quality of life are health care, education and training for work, the enjoyment of adequate housing, etc.
2. Area of Industrial Activities: Where they can develop useful work with the stable and remunerative to look to its own maintenance.
3. Area of Leisure: Enjoy adequate breaks and entertainment.

LEVELS OF INTEGRATION (by Soder)

1. PHYSICAL INTEGRATION: It consists in reducing the physical distance between poor and normal people. In the field of education, it would have such centers through E.E. built near normal schools, in which they share the dining room, patio, etc.
2. FUNCTIONAL INTEGRATION: Reduction of functional distance between the two groups when using a computer and different resources. It consists of the joint use of available resources. It is considered that it is divided into three levels from lowest to highest:
   1. Utilization shared the same resources but at different times.
   2. Simultaneous utilization of resources while
   3. Utilization of resources simultaneously and with educational objectives, which is also called cooperation.
3. SOCIAL INTEGRATION: The reduction of social distance between a group of poor people and another group of people regarded as normal, through spontaneous interactions and establishing bonds.
4. SOCIETAL INTEGRATION: Refers to adults and assumes that the mentally retarded have, as adults they are, the same possibility of access to social resources than others the same opportunity to influence their own situation of productive work and train for a community in the company of others.

School integration is seen as the key in any integration process. The school is the first unfamiliar foreign environment the child faces. To be effective, school integration must prepare both the poor and the normal children and some parents and other children and has to conduct a specialized training program for teachers.

It is also often spoken of three integration levels: school, work, and social life (talking about the importance of integration work for the formation of self-concept, achievement of economic independence, etc.).

SCHOOL INTEGRATION

School integration implies a complex and dynamic process that tries to combine different elements into one unit. It refers to education in mainstream schools for children with SEN, providing a natural environment of coexistence with their peers to not suffer the isolation that was characteristic of many special schools.

The best distinction between Mainstreaming and school inclusion is that in a situation of integration, the first student receives special education and continues for various periods of the day outside the regular classroom, while in a situation of inclusion, the exceptional child is always maintained in the regular classroom, and here is where you are given the special education needs.

The IEP (individualized education program) could be defined as a report or written statement for each student with a handicap, which specifies the educational objectives and school activities, teaching techniques, and educational psychology strategies required for achieving these objectives. The IEP is clearly the single most defining and differentiating element.

PRAXIS CONDITIONING FOR SCHOOL INTEGRATION

It should combine multiple items and a series of changes in the school system in the country. Such changes affect all elements of the system, from the buildings and materials to the programs and curricula, including most aspects of a political and administrative nature. Tasks will be affected, structure, technology, people, and the environment.

Lafa points to highly diverse needs: information, finance, effective implementation of the necessary material resources, the specialized support necessary administrative procedures, etc.

Red Christopher sets out requirements to be met by the school integration plan, consolidating the various actions undertaken in five major groups: According to the sectors involved in them: families, teachers, and society, or as affected structures, technical services, and accurate school organization itself.

CONDITIONING OF A GENERAL NATURE

1. ACCEPTANCE OF THE PROCESS
   • Obtain the accession of the general public, institutions, parents, professionals, and other locals, etc. In any process of integration, the public information component is an important element in both; it can effectively take q just hinder the smooth development to achieve positive results.
   • Attitudes favorable and full cooperation of everyone involved in the integration process: parents, teachers, students, etc.
   • Information and training are required to find those positive attitudes. Especially for teachers.
2. ADMINISTRATIVE ASPECTS
   • The integration planning process to be objective so that it can suit the socio-environmental context in which to insert.
   • Implementation of an appropriate administrative decentralization process.
   • Establish adequate procedural rules and a clear delineation of responsibilities.
   • Existence of permanent civil service training and technical support staff and teachers involved in integration.
   • Coordination of intra- and extra-curricular programs with other community activities.
3. SCHOOL
   • Infrastructure
   • The curricula must be comprehensive, flexible, and functional
   • Restructuring programs of mainstream classes
   • Individualized instruction
   • Hours flexible and dynamic
   • Pupil/teacher ratio should be reduced
4. TEACHING STAFF
   • They must be taken in advance, provisions, and detailed guidance for the proper incorporation of faculty integration processes.
   • Adequate training of teachers to carry out an integration program.
   • It must be noted that working towards integration as a complex process that affects people and their education.
5. THE PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL TEAMS
   • They must decide which children are subjects of integration and their educational needs.
   • Maintain and raise standards of quality of special education in general, guiding and supporting the teachers involved.
   • To inform and educate parents on how students can cooperate with the school for their children’s progress is greater.
6. THE PARENTS
   • His willingness to participate in the process of integration is one of the most important factors (acceptance and involvement)
   • They must have a focused role in educating the child
7. PUPILS

RENOVATING ELEMENTS THAT MAKE THE SCHOOL THE SCHOOL INTEGRATION INTEGRACIÓN1.HACIA

You need to walk towards the search for a school model in which all, without exception, may be served, taking diversity as a value and accepting the child with all that is and all you have. You must take a new educational concept which takes as its center the person and not their disabilities, and the approach they are the values that guide the life of relationships at school.

2. The Child as the Main Protagonist and RESPECT FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

The student, being the center of their own learning process, for which every human being has as natural potentiality, you have to put all the dimensions of the person.

One of the basic objectives of education is the integral development of all human capacities, the realization of the individual, can only be done based on respect and proper treatment of individual differences.

The student-centered learning should be meaningful (the child must perceive it as important to him) and participatory. Educational techniques, such as materials and educational methods, have to give up the child’s basic needs, being according to the sociological context belongs.

Progress must be understood not merely as a forward, but as a deliberate development of distinctively human potentialities.

Individual work is put in the foreground. Each child progresses at their own pace and progress according to their potential because each child is different, and its possibilities are clearly differential and distinct.

The educational implication of this is the principle of individualization.

3. THE OPEN SCHOOL AS COMMUNITY EDUCATION: PARTICIPATION AND COOPERATION OF PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND STUDENTS

The school is only renewed recognition of the right of all the community to use the service in which she has helped to give, and the school can be considered as the set of institutional educational offerings that society offers to new generations.

The use of services by the community will enable the use of all services and socio-community resources needed throughout the educational process.

Considering the school as an educational community open, it involves the inclusion of various educational actors, which would add anything to the educational process, but it would distort and hinder without a participative approach.

The main protagonists of this participation are the parents, pupils, and teachers.

It is necessary in the education community to favor the participation of as many elements involved in the educational process of students.

The teacher must be a facilitator of learning, create a sympathetic environment, support, camaraderie to eliminate difficulties, threats, isolation, should stimulate the development process of their students in all its dimensions, creating optimal learning situations in According to the characteristics of students and their social and educational means. There are also shared teaching methods (normal teacher and support teacher) are a prerequisite depending on who you ask.

Cooperation increases motivation, improves the intercom and classroom climate. There is greater cohesion, more performance, but also influence, higher satisfaction, and confidence among team members.

4. THE CLASSROOM SOCIAL CLIMATE AND THE IMPORTANCE OF SCHOOL INTEGRATION IN THE FAMILY ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIAL

It should be understood the premise of a school that is steeped in family and social environment. The increased social interaction with the environment around the school has great importance as constraints on individuals and on the school.

Who brews in the school should be considered an entire social operator: it must be clear about the link being the school and society, between schools and civil progress.

If the school gets this fully inserted within the family and social environment, can more easily give the attention that students need for the subject of integration within their natural environment. Also within the school, several factors will affect the various forms of student behavior.

ITEM 3: AN INTERNATIONAL OVERVIEW OF THE PRACTICE OF SCHOOL INTEGRATION

1. TYPOLOGY OF FUNDAMENTALIST TENDENCIES

• Institutional trend: It is the child adapting to society, the individual to the collective, integrated and packaged to make socially productive.
• Sociological trend: It is society and adapts school your child.
• Psychological trend: Research the best way for the child to develop the most comprehensive and independently as possible.
• Eclectic trend: Combines the three trends.

2. ELEMENTS FOR AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

3. NORDIC STYLE

Segregated and integrated education, but standard, which is to involve the whole society in the process (sociological).

Every citizen has recognized the right to medical treatment, education, and assistance. The deficiency is no longer an exclusively medical. A Standards Act, but no specific legislation on school integration, but is understood as an educational principle.

Latecomers have a lot of awareness and decision-makers.

This normalization does not change in school structures; the education of the retarded is done in a separate special education, but with many media. In this style of integration, the success of the reintegration and rehabilitation depends more upon the efforts of the society in which it develops its own capabilities.

The key is to achieve standardization through integration.

4. AMERICAN STYLE

Two important laws:

• Public Law 93-112: Requires non-discrimination of any citizen.
• Public Law 94-142: Establishing a national commitment to educate all children behind. This does not require to be educated in a mainstream school, but can be spread special for your benefit. This is much cost and are not prepared. There is a heavy reliance on rules and laws.

Each state has its responsibilities and takes care of education independently, so there are many differences. Of note is the city of Madison (Wisconsin), where the integration is complete.

5. ITALIAN STYLE

His philosophy is the total integration of the disabled into the mainstream (except in severe cases). Integration is made more for political than educational reasons: some say that under pressure from the families of the retarded and others is the only legal way to have retrasados.3

Features of this movement of integration:

• Measures to insufficient integration: lack of resources.
• He attempts a shared responsibility: parents, community, government, etc.
• The importance of education to the community for the sharing of responsibilities.
• There are specialized computers that support the teacher.
• We must do many structural changes for integration.
• The importance of personal initiatives and partnerships.
• As there is decentralized, there are differences in each province.

He noted the case of Parma and Cuatrofino, where the integration is complete with little resources, which avoids special education classes, is given to early childhood education, and all regular classes.

6. INTEGRATION IN THE COUNTRIES OF THE EC

1. GENERAL OVERVIEW

The policy of integration of disabled is widespread in all countries, although the levels of structural development are different in each; it depends on what each country understands integration.

It is understood three perspectives on integration:

• 1: Integration is the result of a process of differentiation from the regular school in the way of meeting the individual needs of all students. From this point of view is the mainstream school that must identify and respond to this.
• 2: The integration is seen as an approximation factor of the disabled student to the school social environment and more normalizing. Here the ordinary school is a normalization factor, and integration occurs when a student moves from one school to another less segregated.
• 3: Those who give special attention to the problem of integration policy compatible with the public school system.

2. COMMUNITY ACTIONS: THE HELIOS PROGRAM

This is a Community Action Program for the disabled. Posed actions of school integration, economic and social integration, as components of a whole which pursues the integration of disabled people.

Network operations and program activities:

1. Community Network of Training Centers and Vocational Rehabilitation
2. Network of Local Activities Economic Integration Model: vocational training and job search and identification of weak.
3. Local Activities Network Model of Social Integration: to be autonomous and able to access all resources in society.
4. Network of Local Activities School Integration Model: aimed towards school integration.

It should be stressed within the system HANDYNET Helios, which is a multi-lingual communication and information related to the handicapped community. Its objectives are to stimulate the exchange of information and cooperation among all participants in the process of integration of handicapped you.

ITEM 4: CURRENT CONCEPTUALIZATION OF MENTAL DEFICIENCY

1. HISTORICAL EVOLUTION

Definition of mentally handicapped: In the Middle Ages used the term idiot, idiocy in the eighteenth, nineteenth in dementia and idiocy that was replaced by oligophrenia or mental retardation. Oligophrenia in turn is divided into imbecility and idiocy (Esquirol)

Seguin used in subdividing idiocy idiots, imbeciles and weak of spirit or mind.

WHO in 45 proposed the term mental subnormality and mental deficiency in cases of mental subnormality biologically determined and the delay to the socially determined.

More often use the term mentally retarded.

2. DEFINITION ELEMENTS

The concept of mental deficiency has been transformed, reflecting the evolution of scientific ideas and value systems in industrialized societies. In the nineteenth century, with reference to mental retardation, a genetic model is based on the criteria of intellectual and social adaptation.

Lambert stresses the current notion is twofold:

• From a scientific nature that relies on the development of psychological and biomedical sciences for the description of the pathological conditions that determine their status
• From the social order as it considers poor social integration.

Bidet feel in 1905 the foundations for a definition of mental retardation from the criterion of intellectual level considered deficient in that they present a mental age below their chronological age.

USA used the same in social adaptation as a basis.

In 1959 the AAMD (American Association on Mental Deficiency) attempted to unify criteria. Mental Retardation as a function of intelligence below normal, with origins in the developmental period associated with disorders of maturity, learning, and social adjustment.

In 1973 a second definition: Mental retardation refers to general intellectual functioning significantly below average, which exists in conjunction with an adaptive behavior deficit given that originates during the developmental period.

The main contribution is the consensus and consolidation of three concepts: intellectual functioning, adaptive behavior, and relationship to development. And not a static vision of mental retardation.

The poor are subjects with a series of deficits that must be addressed to recover.

Grossman points out three elements that characterize the mental deficiency and should occur simultaneously.

1. General intellectual functioning significantly below average: This involves taking a standardized test
2. Adaptive behavior deficits, limitations in relation to the standards of maturation, learning, personal autonomy and/or social responsibility in place for their age group and culture. The Handbook of Terminology and Classification provides some rules.

Intelligence can be regarded as a skill

that allows adaptation to environmental demands, the social perspective is a concept of intelligence in connection with other such roles, competencies, personal or interpersonal problems.
C) The deficiencies during development, ie that the deficiency in adaptive behavior and intellectual functioning below the average has to be manifested during the developmental period, until age 18. To avoid confusion with the deterioration of age.
3.TEORIAS LEGEND OF MENTAL DEFICIENCY:
Deficit theory: The retarded differs from the normal subject both quantitatively and qualitatively. The basis is that the poor have a worse delayed compared with normal subjects of the same chronological age. The deficiency is represented in terms of cognitive deficit contrasted experimentally and reaches all areas of cognition
Ellis is the chief representative, said that the retarded behavioral heterogeneity can not be confused with etiological heterogeneity. The experimental model is the comparison of normal subjects delayed based on chronological age. The criticism of much emphasis on behavioral differences. It is appropriate to identify the mental retardation of organic origin.
– Evolutionary Theory: The difference between mentally retarded and normal subject is essentially quantitative, delayed cognitive development is characterized by slower progression, but is progressing according to the same series of cognitive levels.
The most significant theoretical Zigler, which specifies the name of mentally retarded includes mild mental retardation, which owes its status to genetic variations normal intelligence. Cognitive status was measured by standardized intelligence tests.
The experimental model is the comparison between retarded and normal individuals on the basis of mental age
The differences found must be interpreted through variables such as motivation and experience. Mental retardation would be produced by the family environment and socio-cultural.
– Behavioral model: Mental retardation is derived from experimental analysis of behavior conducted by Skinner and has been prepared by Bijou. It is a different approach, defines a mentally retarded as the guy who has a limited behavioral repertoire and inappropriate behaviors. The repertoire is the result of interactions between the individual and environmental conditions that constitute its history.
The behavioral deficits is a product of the interaction of four determinants: biological factors of the past, current biological factors, history of interaction with the environment momentary environmental conditions or events discriminative, reinforcing or dispositional.
The first is identified with the medical model in which the deficiency is static and the second with the evolutionary model in which the deficiency is dynamic.
The acceptance of either theory has important implications for educational outreach.
4. CONDITIONING FACTORS OF MENTAL DEFICIENCY: Some people consider that mental deficiency as the result of several factors establishing two groups:
a) Determined by organic factors include genetics, prenatal, perinatal, postnatal, etc.
b) Environmental factors considered poor light or cultural-family can be divided into:
cultural a.Predominantemente
family b.Predominantemente
And four criteria are used to describe them: Poor mental means, do not present detectable organic pathology, usually have a poor family; of low SES.
5. PREVALENCE OF MENTAL DEFICIENCY: Incidence: refers to the n th of new cases occurring in a period of time.
Prevalence is to estimate the n th of which is deficient in a population at a given time.
There may be differences between the estimates of each job, due to different definitions and criteria for determining mental retardation, or using different estimation methods.
The generally accepted percentage of 3%, is an average value of many works. To accept the need to accept that:
“The deficiency is diagnosed with an IQ below 70
“The diagnosis should not change.
“The mortality of individuals should be similar to that of the general population.
6.NIVELES Mental Deficiency: The mentally handicapped are a very heterogeneous group, there are many factors that determine the permanent or temporary state of mental deficiency. The need for the establishment of levels is determined by administrative reasons (legal provisions concerning their education) and scientific, involving differential diagnoses.
Liley: The most useful classification for the doctor who seeks to establish a diagnosis and explain the cause of mental retardation appears to be the most useful for administrative classifications He states from six perspectives: Etiological, chronological, numerical importance, type of intervention or planning, can practice prevention, for guidance, learning and training. The latter indicates that factors such as gravity is established according to the CI
The first formal attempt to etiological classification is the book of William Ireland On idiocy and imbecility (1877) with twelve subdivisions
The classification system most widely accepted is the one suggested in the manual of the AAMD in 73 and later recommended by WHO, based on their score on a standardized test. But it shows interindividual differences.
In USA are divided into EMR (able to learn some academic subjects), trainable mentally retarded (able to perform daily living skills), poor (severe they can not fend for himself.
Combining the ratings we get:
Mental 1.Deficiente medium: 50-7 ª IQ. Able to care for and obtain a level of 5th or 6th. Some features identifiable organic pathology, are subjects moderately disadvantaged. They can work in competitive jobs and unprotected.
Moderate mental 2.Deficiente: CI 35-55. Ability to communicate skills to care for themselves and HHSS acceptable. Get a level of 1 or 2 º
Severe mental 3.Deficiente CI 20-40, able to acquire some skills necessary for everyday life, not become semi-independent mental age between 3 and 5 years.
Profound mental 4.Deficiente: CI 20-25, learning to walk, communicate functionally and attend to their own bodily needs.
It also includes the delay limit, CI 70-85, mild retardation or mental weakness.
Sloan and Birch, four levels for indicating the main features of maturation, development, learning and social and vocational adjustment corresponding to previous levels.
The levels of behavior are useful in forming groups of students, but we can not forget the reality of each person.
ITEM 5. DIAGNOSIS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION
1.CONSIDERACIONES ON THE CONCEPT OF DIAGNOSIS: Diagnosis is attaining knowledge of something through a means linked to the measure, observation, evaluation, explore, measure and value.
Rodríguez Espinar said characteristics:
“It is based on direct or indirect measurement of attributes, traits, factors or behaviors.
“It must be open to using multiple methods of obtaining information.
“He must reveal potential and limitations.
“You must pursue the identification and classification of behaviors.
-Any diagnosis must seek a causal explanation
-The extent to diagnosis and educational guidance is referred to a rule or a criterion
-Putting emphasis on the relevance and appropriateness of the factors to evaluate.
-Avoid exclusivity of interpretation and give greater emphasis to environmental factors.
-Diagnose is to know and assess the situations and circumstances in which each individual is to design personalized educational activity.

The definitions range from the clinical diagnosis, psychological or strictly educational. Different definitions of the most common are:
• The diagnosis is the result of a pedagogy / psychology applied
· Is defined by reference to anomalies, disorders or learning problems.
· Great value on tools and techniques.
· Sometimes identified with the psychodiagnostic, prevailing on the psychological aspects of education.
· It places more emphasis on curative aspects in the prevention and the development.
· Not given great importance to theoretical and conceptual frames of reference.
· Some include the treatment or intervention as a further stage of diagnosis.
· Almost silenced the methodological issues and research
· Consider the diagnosis as part of the educational intervention, continue to serve the objectives of the school.
· Not considered as an essential part of the educational process, but something incidencial.
· Finally silenced diagnostic variables such as cognitive styles, classroom climate, interactions, learning potential, … they can bring real alternatives to the current diagnosis.
The diagnosis should include those aspects that have significant or greater impact on the evolution and development of schoolchildren in the learning process. Including subjective elements or own the subject, the social or relational skills and abilities.
At present, the diagnosis has to direct its action to all members of the educational community.
In the United diagnosis has also been attached to the medical model etipatogénico. It was from medical and psychological variables. The process was based on the diagnosis and therapy used to cure. Planning should be focused not on causes but on ways of learning. Intervention should be positive and not be considered a cure.
In the 70s there were changes in purpose and in the diagnostic process:
“The purpose is focused on identifying, assess and evaluate the strengths and limitations of the learner and the context.
“The diagnostic process is more dynamic and interactive continuous
2.THE DIAGNOSIS IN MENTAL DEFICIENCY: CURRENT LINES: Currently the diagnostic concept is very close to the evaluation from the behavioral standpoint. The diagnosis is a continuous, dynamic, interactive, present throughout the whole treatment. The diagnostic term, from an educational point of view concerns the complex process of assessment (identification of the poor), adequacy of the instructional program and its monitoring.
Lambert dismisses the diagnostic term and replaces it with the assessment. Considers that the medical model is not appropriate for the available data on the deficiency does not allow unambiguous linkages between an organic defect and delayed behavior, that the step from diagnosis to intervention is not automatic, and study the individual in terms of interactions with the environment, the range of possible behavioral changes is very large, reducing the value of the forecast.
The EVALUTION is effective when used as a basis for intervention and should have the following characteristics:
· Being oriented towards a specific purpose, to serve the educational activity.
· Incorporate a variety of information describing the student’s behavior. The tests, observation, information collected in the environment, etc, to integrate them into the process.
· Development in schools.
· Be an ongoing process.
The initial assessment, the first stage of the process, determine the overall level of student. It involves the limitation of not providing the necessary basis for intervention. So should begin verifying the ongoing assessment and increases the initial data.
In the diagnosis are often not suitable and reliable test, it is necessary to carefully define the exact objective of the assessment, establish detailed consideration of the existing test.
The diagnosis of mental retardation has been linked to the application of psychological tests, the educational trend has been delayed as the child can benefit from school if the school environment is appropriate and stimulating. The educational evaluation also includes teacher observation, the application of standardized tests, and review of data by a multidisciplinary team.
Before the AAMD definition of CI was the criterion of differentiation, which was widely questioned: Most require a minimum test responses of the individual, without which the test is inapplicable, the inability of the procedure itself to provide information , making it useless in the face in the educational process.
Current work try to approach a more comprehensive assessment of the subject in its relation to its environment. The individual is not an isolated organism. Approaching the individual and his environment, and study the conditions under which it operates. The environmental requirements are different from one age or culture to another.
The diagnostic process has evolved into a descriptive approach, with major efforts to characterize, define and develop methods to measure. A growing interest in the test with reference to certain criteria, the diagnosis informal, systematic observation and task analysis procedures.
3.VALORACIÓN BASED CURRICULUM: We talk about valuation based on the curriculum, diverts attention towards specific observable behaviors. Student deficits, manifested in learning situations and can be reduced by eliminating certain behaviors. This position assumes:
“A positive conception of learning.
“Deficits as characteristics that should be ignored from the standpoint of education.
The assessment begins with the child’s learning in the classroom and involves the assessment of teaching gives response (Criterion or domain) as opposed to the legislation. The assessment based on the curriculum or criterial:
Represent an approach in which student achievements are valued according to certain criteria and include task analysis, goal setting and references to criteria.
· Requires a curriculum is defined as a series tasks, sequenced and expressed in behavioral objectives.
· Allows the decomposition of a skill in a series of simple behaviors.
The process begins with an initial assessment of student skills, which ties in the sequence of targets. Establishing the methods, materials, learning strategies, provision of the class, to facilitate reach various goals. Progress is addressed and the assessment can be used feedback to make changes.
The advantage is that it allows the incorporation of the content of classroom instruction. The difficulties inherent aspects of the specification of behavioral objectives.
The primary meaning of the diagnostic process should be directed to:
-Identify, estimate, evaluate the functional needs, their ability to establish separate programs to allow greater adaptability.
To cover those skills-conditioning, full EA process as information processing, academic skills, adaptive, emotional, social and cognitive skills.
-Provide sufficient information to facilitate decision-making to propose educational solutions tailored to each student.
The analysis of frame models in different approaches and theoretical perspectives. Mental retardation is a multifactorial problem and the diagnostic process should be open to using multiple methodologies.
ITEM 6. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR DIAGNOSIS OF DISABILITY INTELECUTAL PSYCHOMETRIC MODEL:
Historically, the first psychological model of mental deficiency analysis was the psychometric model developed in categories, quantitatively descriptive of the ability or aptitude of the people.
This model is no more than instrumental and descriptive overemphasize the result of intellectual performance than the process by which the subject has come to the resolution of the problem. This model is based on classical diagnostic method or through psychometric instruments, test or tests, allows the assessment of general intelligence and skills of those primaries.

Some of the most widely used intelligence test subjects are mentally retarded Terma-Merrill and the Wechsler scales. Other tests used are and Psychomotor Aptitude Test McCarthy Scales of Development Brunet-Lezin and Bayley, Gesell Development Scales.
Based on the results of intelligence test provides measurements that describe and summarize in figures the degree of intelligence or intellectual capacity of the subject. The best known are the mental age and IQ.
The metal age measures the maturation of certain behaviors acquired by the child at the time the test is made. The IQ is an index of the value of their progress, and may serve as a predictor of growth rate. It is an extremely objective data.
However when it comes to using this assessment in educational purposes, not as satisfactory for these tests are limited to the establishment of an inventory of information, knowledge of various cognitive and perceptual skills with the sole criterion of the level of intelligence, without take into account the experimental history, educational and motivational. These tests focus on interindividual differences.
These tests are minimally illuminating the face of intervention. The psychometric model has had limited success because they to busy to show individual differences in training programs draw intelligence.
Although psychometric tests have been a help to the field of differential psychology, diagnosis and prediction of certain factors, but from the educational point of view are of little use, since one must also take into account intra-individual differences.
The psychometric conception or mental deficiency considered as fixed and unalterable, thus practical pessimism or merely the purely instrumental and descriptive of a factual situation, in which case it needs to be provided with other hypotheses on the origin of deficiency and the possible rehabilitation of intellectual ability.
ITEM 7. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR DIAGNOSIS OF DISABILITY INTELECUTAL EVOLUTIONARY MODEL:
It should talk about mental retardation that mental deficiency. Subjects under the previous approach are as poor or below average intellectual capacity, this approach is seen as overdue. The delay does not imply failure, but may be both. It assumes that the causes are responsible for dysfunctions in the maturation processes.
In this evolutionary model is based Piagetian scales. According to Inhelder aspects that describe the cognitive development of mentally handicapped are: cognitive development in the same order as the normal subjects, but with a slower progression rate, fixing the lower stages of cognitive organization and existence of a genetic viscosity, ie recurrence of previous schemes current performance of the subject.
The investigations carried out show that severe and profound retarded are fixed at the stage of sensorimotor intelligence, moderately retarded are unable to overcome the pre-operative period (0 to 2 years in the normal subject), the retarded light can be characterized by a posting on the stage of concrete operations (7 to 11 years in a normal subject)
Given the sequence of stages of cognitive development according to Piaget, then refer the scales that assesses:

· Scales of Psychological Development of the child
In the period sensiomotriz. Until two years. CI but do not put the child’s cognitive development and allow for activities for handicapped children.

• Test site locations on topographic and conservation experiences:
  They correspond to the preoperative and concrete operational levels, which are considered adequate guidance and evidence preservation. The test site location surveying, shows whether the child is able or not guided by the location of figures in different places of scenic vistas. Among the evidence of conservation is often quoted by the conservation of substance, weight and volume, used by Inhelder, those used by Melnick on the conservation of the number and length, and conservation related to music.
• A scale for measuring the development of logical
  The assessment tools listed above, do not require expensive equipment and are easy to use. They create situations similar to daily living, cognitive functioning and indicating readiness for certain activities. These instruments can be used to classify children according to their level of impaired cognitive functioning and to monitor progress.
  Thanks to them can make a differential diagnosis between mentally handicapped and normal light.

ITEM 8: METHODS AND TECHNIQUES FOR DIAGNOSIS OF DISABILITY INTELECUTAL BEHAVIORAL MODEL OR FUNCTIONAL: It derives from the application of the principles of Skinner. The basic proposition of this model is that the control and the explanation of behavior may be conducted after an analysis of the variables that affect behavior.
Alteration of behavioral development is what is called developmental delay. The delayed development evolves through the action of biological, social and physical that deviate from normal in extreme degrees.
Mental retardation is an individual who has a limited behavioral repertoire in all its aspects. The code is a function of the individual’s history and its interactions with the environment. The behavior of the poor is delayed regarded as a dysfunctional pattern, but almost unlimited subject to change.
Learning is a key concept to understand the delay. The repertoire asusencia explained considering that the individual has not learned what the community needs to live in it.
The diagnosis is functional and involves determining the behavioral characteristics of the individual, regardless of its etiology. The diagnosis can determine to what degree the subject is at a disadvantage to live in the physical environment, cultural and social context in which it is located. It is the social environment, not the diagnosis, which determines whether a person is delayed or not because it establishes rules of behavior for each age.
It is necessary to conduct an analysis of the repertoires that owns the subject. The diagnosis indicates the lines that should follow the treatment, which should focus on teaching what should have learned by age.
Among the evidence in the behavioral evaluation, mention Scale Vineland Social Maturity Scale and the AAMD Adaptive Behavior and refer the CAP (Review of Progress in Social Development and Personnel) and ABS (Scale of Behavioral Adaptability )
The PAC is an inventory of social behaviors divided into four areas: autonomy, communication, socialization and occupation. Each of these sectors consists of a set of items spread over several behavioral categories.
The ABS is a scale that allows assessment adjusted and maladjusted behavior. It comprises two parts. The first aims to assess the wise behavior: autonomy, physical, economic activity, language development, household chores … and the second refers to maladaptive behavior: violent and destructive, antisocial, stereotypes … The evaluation is done by observing the subject in his normal environment.
There are also the criterion-referenced test and direct observation.
ITEM 9:
DIAGNOSTIC METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF DISABILITY MODEL COGINITIVO
It is based on a conception of intelligence that stands in opposition to the process or outcome factors.
This model has been designed from the theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability, which describes the human capacity to change and / or modify the structure of their own cognitive functioning.
This structural modifiability be referred to the development of cognitive structures of the subject with low yields and intlectuales deficits and aims to address, directly, to the deficient cognitive functions, evaluating an individual’s ability to provide learning experiences at a later stage.
The assessment tool they developed Feuerstein and his colleagues, the mechanism of learning potential assessment “is intended to provide such indications.
The assessment of learning potential, just as behavioral assessment methods, is in poor a clear objective: to assess the areas that can be modified and the appropriate procedures to ensure proper recovery.
The fundamental idea underlying the valuation approach proposed by Feuerstein, is not intended to measure the current level of intellectual development of the individual, but its susceptibility to change. The degree to which they can change their characteristics.
This cognitive model is an alternative to the psychometric model, for which presents a series of changes:
-CHANGE IN THE STRUCTURE OF TEST: this is a procedure of test-training-retest. That is, after assessing the individual skills training.
– CHANGE IN LOCATION OF EXAMINATION: the roles of examiner and the examinee change radically, since one is the helper and the other who is helped, among them a series of interactions occur through which processes occur mediation, intervention, reinforcement and feedback.
– CHANGE IN THE GUIDANCE OF THE TEST: learning is dynamic by nature and for this dynamic so attention must be directed toward the individual review process through which El Nin @ is a reasoned response. It minimizes the importance of the test response, because what matters is the process by which the student falls short of that response.
– CHANGE IN THE INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS: It is proposed to evaluate the potential for learning: the ability to thought and intelligent behavior of the individual hides, which usually manifests itself in their daily conduct.
ITEM 10
DIAGNOSTIC METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF DISABILITY AS AT PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL
It refers to an entire cycle or repeated process of assessment and teaching. The cyclical process that involves any reduction promotes the importance attached to more traditional process of making an initial diagnosis in depth, followed by planning long-term actions.
It addresses the concept of education from an evaluative and prescriptive teaching, ie, while integrating assessment and intervention, and the emphasis given to the identification causes it constitutes an essential characteristic.
Good and executioner referred to as clinical teaching, indicating that consists of diagnosing a subject and pedagogical program individualized recovery plan.
In the case brought by this model, Lerner identifies five phases, the first four diagnosis, planning, implementation and evaluation. They are interconnected and aimed at a new diagnosis, which can alter that.
(see page 107)
The diagnosis is a priority, provide tutoring, appropriate to each student @, that is, a personalized instruction. And is all the more valid the more you focus on pupil assessment from the standpoint of teaching, that is, the more detail to determine aspects such as; way to learn the child, what can or can not do in different areas of skills, and even what their preferred mode of assimilation.
As a diagnostic tool of this type, Ingalls said the Aptitude Test psycholinguistic Illinois.
(see diagram for diagnostic prescriptive teaching, pp. 108)
EDUCATIONAL INTERVENTION IN INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES:
CONCEPTUAL 1.ELEMENTOS: CURRENT APPROACHES:
The intervention has undergone changes over the last quarter century. New trends:
aA educational intervention is not just for poor children but all ages.
aA intervention tends to be more individualized, without marginalizing the group work.
ASe employ different methods and complementary techniques based on the results of the evaluation.
intervention tends to be replaced by treatment with family and open media.
aA intervention also addresses the social and physical environment of the poor.
aA intervention ceases to be a problem for developed countries, also in underdeveloped countries.
The intervention has changed to a custom perspective, ecological and community. The educational intervention program can be seen as systematic, appropriate to the characteristics and needs of the person in relation to their environment, and aims to develop the full potential of each subject to intervention, situations and experiences by providing the most appropriate, allow him to break their deadlock and achieve a greater adaptation to the environment through learning processes.
2.Are INTERVENTION: SENSE, THE CONTENT AND CONTEXT:
It is necessary to give the mentally handicapped comprehensive education so that it can perform according to their potential, their personal life. We must train the mentally handicapped for life and the fullness of life. Training for life, does not arise spontaneously as inevitable realization of inner wholeness, but as a result of a process aid, interactive nature, aimed at training the subject to understand himself and his surroundings.
Enable it mean that the educational activities should be directed primarily at all deficient areas. Each area must be arranged concentrically divided into subareas of increasing difficulty, each serving as a base for the next.
The mentally handicapped should acquire a basic set of behaviors for social integration. One is personal autonomy.
In the field of education, giving them an education emphasizes perceptual-motor, language education (understanding what they say and how they talk), math (learning by heart but often do not establish a real link between the operations), a series social behaviors and practices to develop the ability to live and be useful in society. And sex education.
3.ALGUNOS As soon as it BASIC TO HAVE IN THE DESIGN OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS:
The program provides a guide to individualized treatment according to the specific needs of each individual.
Elements or basic principles that should guide intervention activities:
aA integration:
5. PHYSICAL INTEGRATION: it consists in reducing the physical distance between poor and normal people. In the field of education it would have such centers through E. E built near normal schools, in which they share the dining room, patio …
6. FUNCTIONAL INTEGRATION: reduction of functional distance between the two groups when using a computer and different resources. It consists of joint use of available resources. It is considered that it is divided into three levels from lowest to highest:
-Sharing of the same resources but at different times.
“Simultaneous use of resources while
-Use of resources at the same time and with educational objectives, which is also called cooperation.
7. SOCIAL INTEGRATION: the reduction of social distance between a group of poor people and another group of people regarded as normal, through spontaneous interactions and establishing bonds.
8. SOCIETAL INTEGRATION: refers to adults and assumes that the mentally retarded have, as adults they are, the same possibility of access to social resources than others the same opportunity to influence their own situation of productive work and train for a community in the company of others.
The road to integration necessarily pass three core business areas:
4.Área of primary activities affecting the quality of life are health care, education and training for work, the enjoyment of adequate housing …
5.Área of Industrial Activities: where they can develop useful work with the stable and remunerative to look to its own maintenance.
6.Área of Leisure: enjoy adequate breaks and entertainment.
aA early intervention:
Objectives:
“Intervening in the early years of his life in the critical years.
“Remedying the slowness of their development.
-Avoid the accumulation of secondary deficits.
Early intervention programs behavioral changes in children, accelerating aspects of development, acquiring new behaviors and increasing personal autonomy, in addition to providing assistance to parents and reducing the cost of their education when intervention begins early.
aA parental involvement:
The active involvement of parents is essential to the success of educational intervention for children. When parents are involved in intervention programs, maintenance and generalization of learning made by their children are more likely to occur. It is necessary to establish close cooperation between parents and professionals.
with interactions of the assessment and intervention:
There unaminidad the need for an interaction between them.
Personal interaction refers to an exchange of information between those responsible for assessment and intervention to improve the quality of the latter. It is often noted that valuation tools lack the characteristics required to optimize program results. It also influences the labeling of students.
The functional interaction leads to consider the assessment and intervention as a single integrated and new trial, so that the relationship between the two is the natural interaction between two parts of a unit.
curricular adaptations wings:
To properly carry out the curriculum adaptation process is based on the identification and assessment of educational needs in context, taking into account the functional level demonstrated by the student. Makes mental deficiency mainly a problem of education.
Depending on the process elements can speak of several types of adaptation:
+ Adaptation of access to the curriculum: it involves changes of space resources, materials, so that students can enroll in the regular curriculum.
+ Adaptation curricular modify objectives, content, methodology, curriculum activities to meet individual needs.
+ Significant curricular adaptations: it implies the elimination of some areas of the curriculum.
+ Curricular adaptations not significant: it implies change but not elimination.
+ Curriculum Diversification: remove some areas that may present.
You can talk about three features in mentally retarded who are interested from the standpoint of designing a curriculum adaptation:
“His tendency to an external locus of control: they perceive that they have no control.
“His high expectation of failure.
“His heavy reliance on external guidance
Essential elements of curriculum adaptations:

1.Select objectives and learning content:
To set the order of sequences and priorities, it must take into account three important and interrelated elements:
+ The positive aspects provided by the student.
+ The objectives and content that help the child.
+ The willingness of the teacher to initiate activities.
Two of the sources used to define the curriculum are:
1.The scale of development and evolutionary theories
2.The analysis of what an individual needs to live in society.
Targets are set according to the level of student development and will vary according to your needs (behavior, age, socio-economics …) Those objectives are expressed in terms of behavior, and are more oriented towards achieving practical skills of life everyday to achieve academic skills.
The key criteria for targeting are the assimilation and use.
A key to successful programming is the selection of functional behaviors. These are behaviors that allow students convenient proper control of their environment in terms of getting a positive and stable.
The programs for the mentally retarded light or medium included the following:
Daily life-skills: grooming, cleaning, food, care …
Social-adaptive skills: language, moral education, sexual …
Development-cognitive skills.
Skills-oriented workplace.
2.Métodos appropriate instructions:
The methods must be individualized, participatory, while liberal in the sense of enhancing the choice of work by the student. The conditions or events that precede a behavior (the background) can improve learning as well as events or conditions subsequent (consequent). The background and consistent, along with the object of learning is the three main components of effective teaching.
There are elements that can be configured as a whole a particular method:
-Analysis of tasks: it allows the decomposition of a skill or ability should be learning in a number of behavioral components, tasks easier, whose aggregation would be deducted first.
-Class standards: one learns and works best in situations where they know beforehand what is expected of them.
-Suggestions or incitements: be provided to students as they learn the task, in order to increase their chances of success.
Class-Environment: It is very important, particularly in relation to the adequate background to it.
“Educational planning and schedule: the school should be established in order to increase learning opportunities, in addition to the teacher helps for effective teaching.
-Consistent: education can not be done without providing the students with the consequences that indicate that your answers are correct or incorrect.
3.La review:
It should be formative and criterial, and is a fundamental process.
4.TIPOS PROGRAMS:
In any attempt at classification is detected joint consideration of two elements or criteria, the underlying theoretical model and the broad goal of the program, to prevail in the designation of groups or types of programs, either as appropriate.
There are several approaches that refer to various types of programs:
-P. Sensory-motor: trying to improve sensory and motor function of children, increase their independence, develop habits of personal care and help improve their social behavior.
-P. Labor-social aim to bring about social skills development and employment of retarded.
-P. Compensatory: with a high degree of specificity and individualization target behavior or skill object of interest, in order to remedy this specific aspect of the student.
-P. Normalization: normalize the individual’s environment.
-P. Therapeutic: psychotherapeutic programs aimed at individuals with emotional problems or social maladjustment.
Spicker conclusions after analyzing the programs:
“The curriculum models that promote the development of cognitive skills result in increases in IQ scores.
-The traditional method is only effective nursery with specific goals.
-Structured programs that are not academically oriented intellectuals only produce gains when using a strong oral language.
“Preschool programs that promote academic skills improve reading memory and the ability to calculate, but not understanding or reasoning.
“In school programs emphasis should be on fine motor skills, memory and language.
“The intervention in the home is only needed as not given at school.
“The programs were more successful in older than in children.
Educational Programs:
àPrograma Washinton University for Down syndrome (Hayden and Haring, 1970)
àPrograma for teaching mentally retarded Bender and Valletutti
Behavioral Educational àProgramas PCE (Dueñas, 1988)
àProgramad Instrumental Enrichment (Feuerstein, 1980)
ITEM 11.: Hearing Impaired
1.CONSIDERACIONES GENERAL:
1.1.Definición and classification:
Deafness can be classified into:
-Light: loss of 26-54dB
-Moderate: 55-69dB loss
-Severe: loss of 70-89dB
-Deep: loss of 90 dB
The main concern is to identify the extent to which to affect the ability to speak and develop language. The classification proposed by the specialists of educational guidance is as follows:
“Hearing impairment: disability from mild to profound.
Deaf-Person: impossible to linguistic information processing.
-Hard of hearing: you can hear with a prosthesis.
The age of onset of disability is very important, and there is a classification:
-Congenital: born deaf.
-Deafness acquired: after birth.
“Pre-lingual deafness: at birth or early age.
-Postlingually: at any age after the development of language.
1.2.Prevalencia: Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of hearing disorders in school-age population vary widely due to differing definitions of hearing impairment.
1.3.Medición of hearing:
Procedures:
a) pure tone audiometry: to establish the ability to hear at different frequencies. It uses an audiometer, and asked the child to do when you hear a signal.
b) Speech Audiometry: assesses the perception and understanding of speech, ie, the dB level to which the person can understand the words.
c) specific technical audiometric game (pick up a toy to a signal), operant conditioning audiometry (slow down when you hear the signal lever and the light, then teach only light) and auditory observation of behavior (see the reactions to the sounds)
1.4.Tipos and causes of hearing disability:
Types:
àPerdidas driving: complications of external or middle ear, difficulty transmitting sound vibrations to the inner ear.
àPerdidas auditory sensory nerve fibers and other mechanisms of the inner ear are damaged.
àPerdidas hearing mixed: combination of conduction and sensory.
Causes:
aYour most common middle ear is otitis media. It belongs to the children and not easy to detect. It can lead to membrane rupture. It is high in children with Down syndrome.
àHereditarias: usually the most frequent.
àAdquiridas: due to infections, prematurity, anoxia …
àCitomegalovirus: infection that can lead to hearing impairment and mental retardation and visual impairment.

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL 2.CONSTRUCTION:
2.1.The language and its development:

PerdidaEfectosNecesidades level-40 dB Loss Educativas27 Leve-Difficulty hearing soft voices distinct. “She has learning difficulties, hearing aid if is close to 40dB, attention to language and speech, lip reading. 41-55dB-only hear slight loss of 0.90 to 1.50. “You can lose 50% of what you say in class if you do not see or speak low. -can speak incorrectly, Special Education. -Headset. “Attention to vocabulary and reading. – Sometimes lipreading Loss 56-70 dB hearing only moderately loud. Difficulties in group discussions. -May have speech disorders. “You may have difficulty using and understanding language. “You may have a limited vocabulary and ed-Specialists. Special. -Help in all language skills. -Headset. Lip-Reading. -Training for speech. Lost 71-90 Only serious-30cm from the ear hears. -Identifies sone environment. “It discriminates against all consonants-High probability of dysfunction in speech and language (not spontaneous)-special education program for deaf children. “Partial integration in a mainstream classroom. 91 dB Loss deep-Get better sound vibrations. -Visual communication. “High probability of dysfunction in speech and language (not spontaneous)-special education program for deaf children. “Partial integration in a mainstream classroom.2.2.Capacidad intellectual
It was thought that the conceptual ability of the deaf was poor by their deficiency in spoken language. This is wrong because it is considered the language of signs as a true language.
Academic 2.3.Rendimiento:
Academic performance is very low, because reading ability is one of the most affected areas. In mathematics also show poor performance.
The children of deaf parents have better reading achievement than children of parents normo-deaf listeners.
Social 2.4.Ajuste:
The deaf person has to face multiple problems to fester people to talk to. They run the risk of feeling alone and isolated. This means that often relate only to other deaf. Before this was viewed as isolated, but now it is assessing the benefits that contact with the deaf culture can bring them.

2.5.La culture of the deaf:
Features:
àDiferenciación linguistics: bilingual community: signs and dominant.
àSordera attitudinal: are identified according to their degree.
Abnormal behavioral: increased eye contact and visual.
apatronados endogamous marital: married among themselves.
Aconciencia history: history of deafness.
àConstitución voluntary associations: networking.
3.LA EDUCATION OF HEARING IMPAIRED STUDENTS:
Oral 3.1.Enfoque:
Is to teach deaf people about using their residual hearing.
Principles:
+ Training should begin as soon as possible.
+ Most of the deaf have residual hearing.
+ The early use of hearing aids is crucial.
+ With the amplification of the prosthesis, children will be able to hear.
+ They have to learn to be active listeners.
+ Parents do not need to learn sign language.
Within this approach become important:
aA speech reading: teaching using visual information to understand what they are told. It is a mix of lipstick and other indicators.
aA complemented word: signs, show sounds that can not distinguish with lipreading.
Global 3.2.Comunicación.
Mixed oral and manual techniques, using various methods and strategies. They consider important sign language, which should dominate, but their education must be based on a bilingual model.
Two models of bilingual education for deaf people: those who see the acquisition of sign language naturally and then because it was easier to speak, and another model that does not see any advantage in teaching a language rather than another, but they believe is best done together.
3.3.Modelos provision of services:
For some, the total integration is beneficial to others about the possible social isolation in mainstream classes.
34.Avances technology:
àPrótesis aids: are located within and outside the ear.
àTelevisión.
àAdaptadores in telephone sets.
àEnseñanza assisted by computer.
wing information superhighway: the Internet.
4.THE deaf student in the mainstream classroom:
Hearing loss indicators:
1.Ausencias due to diseases (otitis, sinusitis …)
2.Inclinación head when listening.
3.Volumen high in electronic equipment.
4.Respuestas inappropriate.
5.Desorientación or confusion when the noise levels are high.
6.Falta care or apparent disconnect.
7.Dificultades to understand speech and talk.
8.Imitación behavior of other students.
9.Dificultades in verbal skills, reading and writing.
10.Dificultades to follow instructions.
11.Pedir repetition and instructions.
Adaptations to do the teacher with a deaf student in class.
a) Adjustments in the physical environment: seating changes, relocation tables are …
b) Adaptations instructional exhibits, demonstrations, experiments and simulations, notes, outlines, simplified the verbalizations, nonverbal cues, facial expression, more movement, use pictorial texts …
c) Adapting the social environment: co-guardians, interpreters …
UNIT 12 .- Visual Impairment
1.CONSIDERACIONES GENERAL:
1.1.Definición and classification:
The two most common ways of defining the legal and educational. A legally blind person has a visual acuity of 20/200 (see at 20 feet what a normal person 200). There is also a category, partial vision, visual acuity of 20/70.
For teachers blindness is indicative of the need to read Braille or use an acoustical medium for teaching. Teachers define persons with visual disabilities are able to read print, but need tools, such as people with low vision.
1.2.Prevalencia:
Blindness is one of the less prevalent handicapping conditions in childhood, but not in adulthood, in which visual impairment increases sharply.
1.3.Medición visual capacity:
Visual acuity is usually measured with the Snellen chart (series of letters or symbols placed at a distance). This test is not useful for predicting the ability to read print because it measures the acuity to sense nearby objects, but distant, and also because the visual acuity does not always correspond with the visual efficiency. A useful procedure is the DAP diagnostic assessment system (Barrage). This visual system evaluates the effectiveness from 150 teaching units or lessons.
1.4.Causas:
The most frequent visual problems are caused by refractive errors: by the malfunction of the eye, the sun’s rays are not reflected in the retina and this affects visual acuity. The main problems are:
“Myopia: This occurs when the eyeball is too long and light rays are not reflected in the retina but in front of her. Subsequent to see far away.
“Farsighted: when the eyeball is too short and light rays are reflected through the retina and not in her. Subsequent to see up close.
-Astigmatism: The cornea is irregular and fuzzy perceives objects.
The more serious visual impairment are:
-Glaucoma is excessive pressure on the eyeball. If blood flow to the optic nerve is cut, there is blindness. The causes are unknown, may be sudden or gradual, and can be prevented if detected early.
“Cataracts are clouding of the lens of the eye resulting in blurred vision.
-Diabetic retinopathy: by interference with blood supply to the retina.
In severe visual impairment in children the majority are due to prenatal causes of hereditary origin:
“Colombo: degenerative disease in which peripheral and central areas of the retina are not fully formed.
-Retinitis pigmentosa: giving an inherited disease, retinal degeneration.
-Syphilis and rubella.
Early-retinopathy (ROP) by excessive administration of oxygen during birth.
Visual problems due to malfunctioning of the eye muscles:
-Strabismus: visual defect that causes cross-eyes.
-Nystagmus: involuntary movements are observed and rapid eye causing dizziness and nausea.
2.CONSTRUCTION PSYCHOLOGICAL AND COMPOTAMENTALES:
2.1.Desarrollo Language:
The lack of vision has no significant effect on the ability to understand and use language. Subtle differences are evident in its acquisition tends to be restricted due to lack of visual expression.
2.2.Capacidad intellectual.
At first they wanted to compare intelligence between the blind and visually impaired, but experts believe that the comparison is impossible because there is no comparable test.
As for the conceptual development for the blind have more difficulties in the formation and development of conceptual ability.
There are also differences in the way of perceiving the world, due to the difference sen tactile and visual experiences. Blind people are much more vigilant when collecting information from the environment and have good tactile perception encourages the use of other strategies of an intellectual nature.
The degree of visual loss and age of onset is an important determinant of how they explore their environment. The blind always depend more on the feel of the blind have been made later, as well as those who are totally blind and those with low vision.
2.3.Movilidad:
Mobility is a skill that varies so it is difficult to predict which individuals will move better in space. Motivation is a critical variable. Those with residual vision or are blind from birth tend to be more frustrated.
The blind do not have an inherent sense of perception of obstacles (some will get by detecting changes in the sound of the echo as they approach the objects) or develop a better sense sensory acuity of healthy, but they make more use complete sense.
Academic 2.4.Rendimiento:
You can not compare because it is evaluated under different methods. But it is true that the blind have poorer academic performance than the seers, but for example the deaf have it worse and do not go so far back. So we think that this low performance is due to low expectations or lack of mastery of Braille.
Social 2.5.Ajuste:
Personality problems are not a visual impairment conditions. It is due rather to the reactions and lack of familiarity with sighted people blind.
People with normal vision using written or visual signals when communicating subtle, not blind.
One obstacle to the social settings of the blind is your stereotypical behavior: eye or body movements, repetitive movements of hands, facial expression changes …. these may be manifested from the first months, and should be eliminated or reduced as soon as possible as it can be socially stigmatizing and physically harmful.
3.LA EDUCATION OF STUDENTS WITH VISUAL DISABILITIES:
3.1.Adaptación of teaching:
The student with little or low vision need special modifications in the following areas:
a) Braille:
Two ways to write Perkins Braille machine and are perforated board. Perkins Machine has six keys, one for each of the six points of the cells. When you press the keys, they perforate the paper and printed items. In the perforated board, the punch is pressed into the cells of the board and the points are marked on the paper in reverse.
The most common was to use Braille, but gradually has been shifting from the use of technologies. Ideally, a total of Braille management complemented by technological tools.
b) Use of residual vision:
Reading with books printed in a larger size or using amplifiers. The main problem is that this is more restrictive (books larger, more expensive … etc)
c) Listening Skills:
Children must learn to listen, not an innate skill.
d) Training of mobility:
With resources such as cane, guide dog (not always recommended), those guides (not very common, is transformed into dependency and not learned) and electronics (sound or stick guide laser)
3.2.Ayudas technology:
-Optacon: scanner that converts the printed lyrics touch.
-Optacon II scanner computer screens.
“Kurzweil Reading Machine: Converts the print in mouth.
All these are very expensive.
“Braille ‘n Speak and BrailleMat: Perkins as the machine or punch, but also have a speech synthesizer and word processor.
3.3.Modelos of service provision:
Methods of education:
1.Escuela residential.
2.Aula specific special education.
3.Aula support.
Ordinary 4.Aula using a peripatetic teacher.
4.INTERVENCIÓN EARLY AND TRANSITION TO ADULT LIFE:
The train mobility is an essential component dela programming from preschool. It is also important to involve parents in early intervention working from home, mobility and feeding, and assisting them to meet the challenges and harness the initial reactions of having a blind child.
Education is channeled towards the acquisition of independent living skills and training and job search (ONCE)
5. STUDENTS WITH VISUAL DISABILITIES IN REGULAR CLASSROOM:

a) Adaptation of educational materials:
Apart from material in Braille, recordings can provide lessons and activities. Also materials with high contrast, not too crowded and written on one side of the page.

b) Adaptation of instructional methods:
Modify the teaching process to enhance learning: facilitating the task ahead, extra time for exams ….

c) Adaptation of classroom environment:
Giving guidance to fit in class, learn where things are.
Meet the center’s facilities, having them informed of changes that occur in them.
We must also take into account the placement of the table, lighting, help of colleagues … etc.