Comprehensive Guide to Dialogue, Expository Texts, and Grammar
Item 9: Formal Dialogue Texts
Dialogue is an oral communication exchange between two or more people. The speaker and listener continuously exchange roles and influence each other as the text develops.
Formal Dialogue
Formal dialogue is artificially created to mimic spontaneous conversation. It’s commonly used in plays, films, and novels, and is meticulously planned.
Narrative Dialogue
Authors can present character dialogue directly, combining it with narration and monologues. Several methods are used in narrative:
- Direct Style: Quotes the exact words of the characters, typically using the present tense and hyphens or quotation marks.
- Indirect Style: The narrator summarizes what the characters say in the third person, often embedding the dialogue within a subordinate clause.
- Free Indirect Style: Blends direct and indirect styles. The narrator relays the characters’ words or thoughts in the third person without using verbs of saying or thinking, or quotation marks.
- Monologue: A character speaks to themselves or to someone without expecting a reply. This technique reveals the character’s inner thoughts and feelings, often using the first person. Interior monologues delve into the subconscious, expressing hidden emotions and thoughts.
Theatrical Dialogue
In theater, dialogue and monologue are the primary forms of discourse, with stage directions being the exception. Two main text types are used:
- Dialogue/Monologue: The main text, driving the dramatic action and character development. Monologues allow characters to reveal aspects of their lives.
- Stage Directions/Scene Descriptions: Non-dialogic elements that complement the dialogue, specifying how lines should be delivered, character movements, and other details.
Pronouns
What is a Pronoun?
Pronouns replace noun phrases and perform the same grammatical functions. They often agree with determiners in gender and number. When a pronoun refers back to a previous element, it’s called an anaphor; when it refers forward, it’s a cataphora.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns indicate grammatical person (first, second, or third) and have different forms depending on their function in the sentence.
- They mark grammatical person, and when used as subjects, they emphasize the person: Who are you?
- Unstressed personal pronouns can be attached to the verb (enclitic): Tomorrow I’ll bring it. Or placed after the verb (proclitic): Tomorrow I can’t bring it.
- The personal pronouns me, te, se, nos, os are reflexive when they replace a noun phrase that is the same as the subject noun phrase: She wiped the drops from her forehead.
- The personal pronouns nos, os are reciprocal when they replace two or more subject noun phrases that exchange actions. They are often reinforced with phrases like each other: Mary and Martin love each other.
Pronominal “se” as Direct or Indirect Object
- The pronoun “se” is a variant of le/les, functioning as an indirect object: Vicente (CI) gave a book to him. Vicente (CI) saw him (CD) walking.
- It functions as a reflexive direct or indirect object, replacing a noun phrase that matches the subject noun phrase: Eduardo (CD) shaved. Margarita (CI) took off her shoes.
- It is reciprocal when two or more subjects perform the same action on each other: They (CD) hug each other. Peter and Jaime (CI) shake hands.
- It’s a dative of interest or ethical dative when it reinforces the subject’s involvement in the action: Jaime (CI) ate all the pizza (for himself).
- It’s an inherent pronominal when it’s attached to certain verbs and doesn’t function as either a direct or indirect object: The girl woke up with a fever.
Impersonal “se”
- Marks impersonal constructions: It’s nice in the garden.
- Reflects passive voice: Few cars are sold.
Pronouns Matching Determinative Adjectives
Determinative adjectives modify nouns, while pronouns replace noun phrases.
- Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those. That which I told you about has now been resolved.
- Possessive pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. What’s yours is hopeless.
- Indefinite pronouns: anyone, someone, something, anything, one. No one knew anything about his past.
- Ordinal numeral pronouns: first, second, etc. The first thing is health.
- Interrogative and exclamatory pronouns: who, what. Who will act first?
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns introduce subordinate adjective clauses and can function as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, determiners, prepositional complements, and attributes.
- Who, whom, that replace a person, animal, or thing: The path that I took led directly to the house.
- Which refers to things or animals.
- Whose functions as a possessive adjective: It is a play whose author is not well known.
Item 10: Expository Text
Exposition
Expository texts aim to inform and provide knowledge on a specific topic. They can be categorized into:
- Informative Texts: Report clearly and objectively on a general interest topic, using accessible language for a broad audience.
- Scientific Expositions: Specialized texts with complex language, requiring significant background knowledge.
Expository texts often incorporate argumentative elements, as they not only present information but also seek to persuade the audience.
Structure
Expository texts develop a central idea using a logical, chronological, or hierarchical structure. The logical structure links causes and effects. Chronological structures present information in time order. Hierarchical structures organize facts by importance.
The typical structure includes:
- Introduction: Presents the topic.
- Development: Elaborates on the main theme and sub-themes, providing examples.
- Conclusion: Summarizes the main points and restates the thesis.
The approach can be deductive (starting with a general idea and then providing details) or inductive (starting with specific examples and building towards a conclusion).
Linguistic Features of Exposition
- Syntax predominantly uses declarative or attributive sentences.
- Verbs are typically in the present tense and third person.
- Lexicon is clear and precise.
Adverbs and Related Items
Adverbs
Adverbs are invariable words that modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, nouns, or entire sentences. Some adverbs can be intensified with suffixes (e.g., closely, very much). Some are formed by adding “-ly” to an adjective.
Types of Adverbs
- Location: here, there, near, far, above…
- Time: Tuesday, afternoon, last night, then, suddenly…
- Manner: well, badly, slowly, quickly…
- Quantity: much, a little, more, very, so…
- Affirmation: yes, indeed, really…
- Negation: no, not, never, nothing…
- Doubt: maybe, perhaps, possibly…
- Relative: when, where, how
- Interrogative/Exclamatory: when, where, how, how much
Adverbial phrases are groups of words that function as a single adverb.
Syntactic Functions of Adverbs
- Adverbial Phrase Head: Will rest here.
- Circumstantial Complement: Will rest here.
- Attribute: The offer is good.
- Adjective Complement: He gave richly carved jewelry.
- Adverb Complement: They are down there.
- Noun Complement: I’m waiting in the park across the street.
- Sentence Adverbial: Theoretically, it is correct.
- Quantifiers: Modify adjectives, adverbs, or clauses: It is very demanding. It is too far. Yes, I hope.
- Subordinate Clause Introducers: Introduce adverbial, adjectival, or nominal clauses: He behaved as we predicted. I have called twice on the phone while you slept. The town where I live is nice. Now we have to remember the days when he met Mary. Ask when he is coming to dinner. Tell me what the watch is worth.
Adverbs vs. Determiners
Determiners modify nouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Related Items: Prepositions and Conjunctions
These words establish relationships between words, phrases, or clauses.
Prepositions
Prepositions create subordinate relationships between two sentence elements. The element following the preposition acts as its complement. The preceding element can be a verb, noun, pronoun, adjective, or adverb.
Classification of Prepositions
- Simple: to, at, under, with, against, from, in, between, towards, for, as, without, above, behind…
- Two simple prepositions can appear together: The rabbit jumped out of the bushes.
- Prepositional Phrases: Fixed expressions combining prepositions with adverbs or nouns: in front of, underneath, on top of, because of…
Distinguishing between adverbs followed by prepositions and prepositional phrases can be challenging: Under the jersey (prepositional phrase). Far away from home (adverb followed by a prepositional phrase).
Conjunctions
Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses with the same or different syntactic functions.
Classification of Conjunctions
- Simple: and, or, but, that…
- Conjunctive Phrases: because, since, so that…
- Subordinating Conjunctions: Introduce subordinate clauses. These include complementizers (that, if), conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses (because, although, since, when, while, before, after, as, if, unless, so that, in order that), and conjunctions introducing nominal clauses (that, if, whether).
- Coordinating Conjunctions: Link elements with the same syntactic function: Manuel has a dog and a cat. Are you coming for a walk or staying at school? These can be copulative (and), disjunctive (or), adversative (but), distributive (either…or, neither…nor), or explanatory (that is, in other words).