Concepts of Divinity and Society
Enigmas of Man
Who are you? Where are you from? Where are you going?
Characters of Religious Consciousness
Feeling of absolute dependence (or feeling creature).
The man realizes he is a creature of God, and absolutely depends on God’s being.
Feeling misunderstood (the mystery).
Sense of “religious awe.”
This is not the “fear of being punished” but the consciousness of knowing oneself impure before holiness. (Otto said the word “fear” is inadequate, but there is no better.)
Feeling of love.
Character of the Divine
We cannot speak of the divine directly, but indirectly.
In correlation with “absolute dependence,” the divine appears as majesty.
In correlation with “not understanding,” the divine appears as mystery.
To match “religious awe,” the divine appears tremendous.
In correlation with “love,” the divine appears fascinating.
In summary, the divine appears as majestic, tremendous, and fascinating mystery.
Atheism: Doctrine that denies God’s existence.
Theism: Doctrine that demonstrates God’s existence.
Agnosticism: Doctrine that says you cannot know if God exists.
Deism: Asserts God’s existence but says God is not related to the world or men.
Fideism: Doctrine that God cannot be reached by reason, only by faith.
Pantheism: Doctrine that “everything is God.”
Marx’s Atheism
The idea of God emerges from human ignorance and the selfish interests of socioeconomic classes.
Nietzsche’s Atheism
Assuming humanity’s division into weak (“slaves”) and strong (“lords”), the idea of a punishing God is rejected. Nietzsche claims God is dead.
Track Two: Causality of Beings
a) Made of experience: Conditions caused by others.
b) Metaphysical principle: “Every cause is caused by another” – cannot be caused by itself.
c) A series of items: This “other” causes, the first of which is either caused or not.
d) Principle of the series: There must be an uncaused cause. Aquinas argues that not all elements can be caused, leading to a First Cause or “God.”
Routes of Attribution
1a) Via statement: Perfection in a child is attributed to God.
2a) Way of denial: If the child has imperfections, God lacks those imperfections.
3a) Way of eminence: Perfections attributed to God are in the highest, infinite degree.
The Social Contract in Hobbes
a) Man is naturally selfish: Bellum omnium contra omnes (war of all against all).
b) By social compact, rights are given to a sovereign for order.
c) The state is a Leviathan with absolute power, justified by absolute monarchy.
The Social Contract in Locke
a) Men are free, equal, and have natural rights. Everyone can punish those who violate rights, but this can lead to issues.
b) Men form a society under a sovereign, delivering legislative and executive powers but retaining control and revocation rights.
c) The state arises from individuals’ will, justifying a democratic state.
The Social Contract in Rousseau
a) Man is naturally good: Society corrupts.
b) Rousseau advocates a social pact where men regain freedom, goodness, equality, and happiness.
c) Civil society is led by an authority expressing the general will, reflecting man’s natural goodness.
This justifies democracy.
Marx Communism
Marx’s doctrine on society is based on his vision of man.
Against capitalism (thesis), Marx proposes socialism (antithesis).
This leads to communism (synthesis):
- Common productive assets and consumer goods.
- No classes.
- No State.
In capitalism, the state perpetuates class privileges.
In socialism, the state eliminates capitalism and suppresses opposition.
In communism, humans cooperate spontaneously, making religion and the state unnecessary.
Theory of Natural Human Sociability
The human individual needs society for fulfillment. Man is naturally social.
Representatives: Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Suárez, Balmes, Maritain, Mounier.
Reasons:
Humans’ inclination to interact and live in society.
Human language enables communication.
Humans require cooperation for personal development.
Humans need to give to others.
Theories of the Divine Origin of Power
Theistic philosophers believe God gives sovereign power.
- God exists as the supreme being and creator.
- Society is willed by God for man’s fulfillment.
- Authority is willed by God for society’s functioning.
Divine Right Absolutism
Bossuet argued for absolutism of divine right, where the sovereign’s power comes directly from God.
Theory Description
People designate the sovereign, but God grants the power.
Theory of Delegation
God gives power to the people, who delegate it to a sovereign.
The people are the first recipients of authority, then delegate it to a ruler.
NOTE: Several theories agree that the people appoint the ruler, but differ on the source of authority.