Congress of Vienna and 19th Century Liberal Revolutions
Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)
After Napoleon’s defeat and exile to the island of Saint Helena, victorious countries met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. Russia, Prussia, and Austria were absolutist states; only Britain had a constitutional monarchy. They proposed three objectives in the meeting:
- Restore Absolutism (Legitimism): The kings were the only ones with legitimacy to govern.
- Holy Alliance: An alliance to protect the monarchs from any revolutionary attempts. Great Britain did not join this alliance. In 1822, the Congress of Verona attempted to invade Spain.
- Restore Boundaries: Re-establish the boundaries on the map of Europe, which had changed dramatically during the Napoleonic era.
After the Congress of Vienna, there were three waves of anti-absolutist revolutionary movements in Europe.
Anti-Absolutist Revolutionary Waves
- 1820s: Revolutions in parts of Mediterranean countries (Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Piedmont) were inspired by the Spanish Constitution written in Cádiz in 1812. A democratic assembly declared Greece’s independence from the absolutist power of the Ottoman Empire.
- 1830s: Intellectuals, students, and workers in Paris revolted. The Belgians declared independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands and created a liberal constitution.
- 1848: Another revolution in France ended with the reign of Louis Philippe of Orleans, and radical liberals created the Second Republic.
Nationalism in the 19th Century
Key factors contributing to nationalism:
In the past, a nation comprised different territories sharing the same mentality, past, customs, and culture. Nationalists demanded recognition of this shared identity and sought to create new states based on it. Some causes of nationalism were:
Impact of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna: The redrawing of the map of Europe without considering the inhabitants’ opinions led to a sense of dispossession. Some people felt both liberal and nationalist sentiments.
- Unification: Joining territories with a shared past.
- Division: Dividing territories due to strong political forces.
Romantic Culture: The population started to place more importance on feelings, and nationalism became a sentimental movement.
Economy and Industrialization: Nationalism evolved from a revolutionary movement to a constitutional one. Richer social classes became nationalists.
Germany did not exist as a unified nation until the 19th century. The northeast, particularly Prussia, was very powerful, while the south, including Bavaria, was less influential. There were also small independent territories governed by princes. Rich economies and cultures experienced a restoration of absolutism under the guise of legitimism. Old dynasties, like the Bourbons, were restored.
- The Holy Alliance was created to prevent and protect monarchs from any revolt, leading to six different congresses. In 1822, the Congress of Verona attempted to invade Spain.
- New boundaries were created on the map of Europe.
Liberal Revolutions of the 19th Century
After the Congress of Vienna, there were several anti-absolutism waves that culminated in liberal revolutions:
- 1820s: Mediterranean countries initiated revolutions inspired by the Spanish Constitution of Cádiz (1812). In 1822, Greece declared independence from the Ottoman Empire.
- 1830s: Intellectuals, students, and workers revolted in Paris. Louis XVI abdicated, and a parliamentary monarchy was established. The Belgians gained independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
- 1848: Another French revolution began, resulting in the Second Republic. This revolution spread to Austria, Germany, and Italy and was significant because it included many democratic and social demands, such as universal suffrage, the right to strike, and a 10-hour workday.