Connotative and Denotative Meaning, Sentence Structure, and Textual Analysis
Connotative vs. Denotative Meaning
Denotative meaning is the objective meaning of a word found in dictionaries. For example, “sky” denotes the space above the earth.
Connotative meaning is the subjective meaning a word acquires based on common situations or feelings within a group. For example, “sky” can connote happiness or freedom.
Polysemy, Monosemy, Synonymy, and Antonymy
Polysemy refers to words with multiple meanings. Monosemy refers to words with a single meaning. Synonymy refers to words with similar meanings. Antonymy refers to words with opposite meanings.
- Antonymy of Degree: Words with gradable opposites (e.g., hot/cold).
- Complementary Antonymy: Words that negate each other (e.g., possible/impossible).
- Relational Antonymy: Words that imply each other (e.g., buy/sell).
Homonymy: Words with the same spelling or pronunciation but different meanings (e.g., bat/bat).
Sentence, Clause, and Phrase
A sentence is a minimal communicative unit expressing a complete thought.
A clause contains a subject and a verb.
A phrase is a group of words without a verb, often acting as a single unit within a sentence.
Functional Units of Language
A sentence has a complete structure.
A proposition is the meaning expressed by a sentence.
A phrase is a group of words centered around a nucleus.
A word performs a specific function within a phrase or sentence.
Foreign Words
Foreign words are integrated into a language in several ways:
- Rejection due to existing equivalents.
- Adaptation of pronunciation or spelling.
Syntactic Groups: Class and Structure
A syntactic group is a functional unit formed by one or more words. It has a nucleus and optional modifiers or complements.
Grammatical Sentences
Grammatical sentences can be simple or complex, consisting of one or more clauses.
Sentence Types Based on Speaker Attitude
- Declarative: States a fact.
- Interrogative: Asks a question.
- Exclamatory: Expresses strong emotion.
- Imperative: Gives a command.
- Hortative: Expresses a wish or desire.
- Dubitative: Expresses doubt.
Interjections
Interjections express emotions. They can be onomatopoeic (imitating sounds), appellative (addressing someone), or expressive (conveying feelings).
Locution
A locution is a fixed combination of words that functions as a single unit.
Texts and Textual Genres
Texts can be classified based on discourse type (narrative, descriptive, etc.), social context (literary, journalistic, etc.), communicative intention (informative, persuasive, etc.), and target audience (children, adults, etc.).
Forms of Discourse
- Description: Presents details of objects, people, or places.
- Narration: Tells a story.
- Exposition: Presents and explains information.
- Argumentation: Presents arguments and evidence.
- Dialogue: Conversation between two or more people.
Substantivization
Substantivization is the process of turning a word or phrase into a noun.
Textual Approach: Objective and Subjective
Objective texts avoid personal opinions. Subjective texts express the author’s viewpoint.
Nouns: Semantic Classification
Nouns can be classified by form (gender, number), function (subject, object), and meaning (concrete, abstract, countable, uncountable, individual, collective).
Noun Phrase Functions
- Subject
- Object
- Apposition
- Complement to adjective
- Complement to adverb
- Vocative
Pronouns
Pronouns replace nouns or noun phrases. They can be personal, demonstrative, possessive, numeral, indefinite, relative, interrogative, or exclamatory.
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that, whose) connect clauses. Interrogative pronouns (who, whom, what, which, whose) ask questions.
Word List
compose, extend, open, make, cause, engage, develop, execute, commit, drill, take, involve, enjoy, suffer, submit, provide, host, record, develop, perform, attend, bear, reign, occur, stalk, stay, run, detected, comet, concluded.