Conquest, Crisis, and the Fall of Islamic Spain: Al-Andalus
Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Cordoba
The Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula stemmed from two concurrent historical factors: the internal crisis of the Visigothic monarchy and the expansion of Islam from 634.
Visigothic King Witiza had designated his son, Agila, as his successor. However, upon Witiza’s death in 710, the Duke of Andalusia, Rodrigo, led a successful revolt, seizing the throne and sparking a civil war. Witiza’s supporters sought help from the Muslims in North Africa. Muza, the Arab governor, dispatched a Berber army led by his lieutenant, Tariq. Tariq defeated King Rodrigo at the Battle of Guadalete (711), marking the end of the Visigothic monarchy.
The entire peninsula was swiftly conquered due to the populace’s lack of loyalty to the monarchy and the initial tolerance shown by the Muslims.
Dependent Emirate (711–756)
Al-Andalus became a province of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus, ruled by an emir representing the caliph. This period was marked by political instability due to infighting among Muslim groups and military campaigns, including defeats at Covadonga (722) and Poitiers (732).
Independent Emirate (756–929)
The Umayyads fell victim to the Abbasid Revolution. However, one Umayyad, Abd al-Rahman I, escaped to Al-Andalus and, with local support, proclaimed himself emir, establishing an independent emirate. This era saw the reorganization and consolidation of Muslim power in Al-Andalus, while Christian territories expanded from the north to the plains of the Duero basin.
Caliphate of Cordoba (929–1031)
Abd-al-Rahman III (912–961) declared himself caliph in 929, establishing political and religious independence from Baghdad. This marked the zenith of Muslim power, culture, and art in the Iberian Peninsula. Hisham II (976–1009) saw his prime minister, Mansur, exercise direct power, leading successful military campaigns against the northern Christians. Mansur’s death in 1002 after the Battle of Calatañazor ushered in a period of civil war, culminating in the Caliphate’s demise in 1031. Numerous small kingdoms, known as Taifa, emerged in its place.
The Crisis of the 11th Century: Taifa Kingdoms and North African Empires
The disintegration of the Caliphate of Cordoba in 1031 led to the rise of the Taifa kingdoms.
This division weakened the Muslims against the Christian kingdoms. The dynamic shifted, with Muslims paying tribute to Christians, initially for assistance in internal conflicts and later as homage. This forced Taifa rulers to raise taxes, leading to unpopularity. Three distinct periods followed:
First Taifa (11th Century)
This period ended with the arrival of the Almoravids. The Taifa’s weakness fueled the Christian Reconquista. In 1085, Alfonso VI of León and Castile conquered Toledo. Fearing further losses, the Taifa sought help from the Almoravids, an ultra-Orthodox Berber Muslim group from North Africa. The Almoravids halted the Christian advance and absorbed the Taifa into their empire. Their intolerant rule led to the persecution of Mozarabs and Jews, fueling resentment among the populace who yearned for the previous tolerance and intellectual freedom. This rejection was compounded by the rise of a new reform movement in Morocco: the Almohads.
Second Taifa (12th Century)
The Almoravid Empire disintegrated, leading to renewed political fragmentation and Christian pressure. The Taifa again sought help, this time from the Almohads, an even more fundamentalist group. The Almohads reunited Al-Andalus, making Seville their capital. They initially countered the Christian advance, but the Christian kingdoms united to achieve a decisive victory at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212, marking the beginning of the end for Muslim presence in the peninsula.
Third Taifa (13th Century)
The weakening Almohads led to the formation of the third Taifa, which couldn’t stop the Christian advance and gradually fell, except for Granada. The Beni Amer attempted another incursion but were defeated at the Battle of Rio Salado near Tarifa (1340). The Kingdom of Granada survived until 1492, when it was conquered by the Catholic Monarchs.