Consequences of World War I and the Rise of Totalitarian Regimes
Consequences of World War I and the Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, concluded the Paris Peace Conference, which involved 32 nations, excluding the defeated powers. The victorious nations sought reparations to compensate for war costs and damages. Key decisions were made by the United States, France, and Italy. The conference established the League of Nations, an international organization aimed at safeguarding peace and resolving conflicts through negotiations. The treaty, signed on June 28, 1919, held Germany responsible for the war, imposing harsh sanctions, including territorial losses, limiting its army to 100,000 soldiers, demilitarizing the Rhineland, and occupying the Saar region by France for 15 years.
A New Map of Europe
The peace treaties of Paris redrew the map of Europe. Germany lost all its colonies. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was divided into Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia. From the Russian Empire, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania gained independence. Poland re-emerged from territories of the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and German empires. Italy annexed territories such as Trentino and Istria. The Ottoman Empire was reduced, losing part of its European territory.
The Russian Revolution of 1917
The Russian Revolution refers to two revolutions in 1917. The first, the February Revolution, ended the autocratic rule of the Tsar. The second, the October Revolution, led by the Bolsheviks, overthrew the provisional government established after the February Revolution, establishing a communist dictatorship led by Lenin.
February Revolution
Russia’s involvement in World War I exposed the country’s lack of military, political, and economic organization. The mobilization of millions of peasants caused a decline in agricultural production. Councils of workers, peasants, and soldiers, known as soviets, demanded changes. The revolution resulted in a power struggle between the provisional government led by Kerensky, supported by the Mensheviks (moderate socialists), and the Soviets, mostly led by the Bolsheviks (radical socialists, grouped in the Communist Party) under Lenin.
Stalinism
After Lenin’s death in 1924, Trotsky and Stalin competed for succession, with Stalin emerging victorious in 1927. Stalin instituted a totalitarian political system, employing terror through purges. He also implemented a centralized and Russification policy.
Interwar Economic Crisis
Following World War I, economic dominance shifted to the United States, with New York becoming the financial center. The war did not cause damage within the US territory. By 1919, the US held almost half of the world’s gold reserves. The 1920s were a period of prosperity in the country.
Characteristics of Fascism
Fascism is an anti-democratic regime where individual liberties are subject to the state, led by an all-powerful leader and supported by a single national party. It involves the suppression of political parties and unions. The state intervenes in the economy but supports private enterprise. The state controls society through education, culture, and communication. Violence and militarism are manifested in symbols, anthems, and uniforms. Violence is used to repress dissent and promote a revolutionary agenda, justified by an exacerbated expansionist nationalism that demanded the creation of a colonial empire for Italy.
German Nazism
After Germany’s defeat in World War I, Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated. The Weimar Republic was established, but its life ended with the rise of the Nazi Party in 1933. Germany felt humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles and overwhelmed by economic, social, and political problems. The 1930s began with the Great Depression. This economic disorder was exploited by extremist parties, such as the Communist Party and the Nazi Party (NSDAP), led by Adolf Hitler. They promised to suppress communism and restore national pride and well-being.
Hitler’s Rise to Power
The Reichstag fire, blamed on communists, served as an excuse for Hitler to dissolve all parties and unions except the Nazi Party, granting him absolute power. A government of terror was established, violently eliminating opponents, with communists being the main victims. The SS (protection squads) and Gestapo (police) were key instruments of repression. The Nazi regime also implemented a policy of ethnic cleansing, based on the supremacy of the Aryan race. Jews were the main victims of this brutal persecution, which began with discrimination and confiscation of property. Gypsies, homosexuals, and people with physical or mental disabilities were also targeted. The Nazi government boosted the economy through public works and rearmament programs.