Constitutional Monarchy and Revolution in Spain (1834-1874)
Constitutional Monarchy: Progressivism and Moderates (1834-1874)
The Social and Political Situation of the Period
With the death of Ferdinand VII in 1833, a new stage in Spain’s political life began. The need for strong support to address the Carlist Wars prompted Maria Christina (wife of Ferdinand VII) to form a Liberal government. However, the Liberals were divided into two factions: the Moderates, who supported more gradual reforms, and the Progressives, who wanted to dismantle the entire structure of the Ancien Régime.
The ruling initially granted power to the Moderates, but public pressure and the Mutiny of La Granja in 1835 led to the rise of the Progressives, headed by Juan Álvarez Mendizábal.
The Progressive Period (1835-1837)
Between 1835 and 1837, the Progressives undertook the task of implementing a liberal constitutional and parliamentary monarchy. A set of laws allowed the dissolution of feudalism with the confiscation of Church lands and the unlinking of property. They also abolished internal customs and dissolved guilds that opposed the free exercise of industry and commerce.
The Constitution of 1837 replaced the Constitution of 1812. Progressive in nature, it recognized national sovereignty and individual rights but accepted a moderating role for the Crown in conflicts between different state organs. It also recognized census suffrage.
In the 1837 elections, the Moderates and Conservatives tried to reverse the revolutionary process driven by the Progressive Liberals. An opposition movement rose against the regent, Maria Christina, who was forced to resign in 1840.
The Regency of Espartero (1840-1843)
The Progressive Baldomero Espartero was appointed regent, but his tenure was marked by internal party disputes over the scope of reforms. His free-trade measures hurt the nascent Spanish industry, and his authoritarian rule earned him opposition from much of the country. In 1843, he resigned, and the Courts declared Isabel II of age and proclaimed her queen.
The Moderate Decade (1843-1854)
From 1843 to 1854, the Moderate Decade took place, led by General Ramón María Narváez. This period gave the new state a conservative and centralized character. It was based on the social dominance of the landowning conservative bourgeoisie, seeking to curb the absolutist claims of Carlism and exclude the Progressives from power.
During this time, the following achievements were made:
- The Constitution of 1845: Established a very limited suffrage and shared sovereignty between the Courts and the monarch.
- Concordat with the Holy See: Declared the state as confessional and subsidized the Catholic religion.
- Creation of the Civil Guard: Disbanded the militia and created the Civil Guard, charged with maintaining order in rural areas.
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)
From 1854 to 1856, the Progressive Biennium took place. The triumph of the pronunciamiento in Vicálvaro, supported by Progressives and disgruntled Moderates from the Liberal Union, led by Leopoldo O’Donnell, brought the Progressives back to power. For two years, the Progressive Espartero tried to restore the principles of the 1837 Constitution through a new constitution that was never approved.
The most important reforms of the Progressive government were economic, including the Confiscation of Pascual Madoz, affecting the property of municipalities. This provided funds for the creation of the railroad.
The Final Stage of Isabel II’s Reign (1856-1868)
From 1856 to 1868, the final stage of Isabel II’s reign saw an alternation in power between the Moderates and the Liberal Union. They promoted a policy of international prestige and colonial ambitions, exemplified by the Hispano-Moroccan War (1859-1860).
Domestically, the government acted authoritarianly, bypassing the Courts and political groups and employing strong repression. Opposition grew, and new political groups emerged, such as the Democrats, who advocated universal suffrage, and the Republicans, who advocated the abolition of the monarchy.
The failure to address the growing opposition and the economic crisis that began in 1856 (agricultural, financial, and industrial) led to the erosion of the regime and the monarchy itself, which had marginalized other political groups.
The Glorious Revolution and the Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874)
From 1868 to 1874, the Sexenio Democrático (Democratic Six-Year Period) took place. The marginalized groups of the past—Unionists, Progressives, and Democrats—united to represent an alternative based on political democratization and economic recovery. The movement was led by General Juan Prim (a Unionist) and General Francisco Serrano (a Progressive).
The revolution was followed by uprisings in major cities, and Revolutionary Juntas were formed. Troops loyal to the queen were defeated in the Battle of Alcolea, and Isabel II went into exile. A provisional government headed by Prim and Serrano was formed, which promoted a reform program.
Fundamental rights were recognized, including freedom of the press, religion, assembly, and association, as well as universal male suffrage. Education and municipalities were reformed. Finally, new Courts were elected, which approved the Constitution of 1869, known as “La Gloriosa” (The Glorious). It was the most liberal constitution of 19th-century Spain.
The Reign of Amadeo I (1870-1873)
From 1870 to 1873, a democratic monarchy was established in Spain under King Amadeo I of Savoy. This king faced opposition from the Moderates, the Carlists, and the Church, who remained loyal to the Bourbons. His supporters were Progressives and Unionists, but they were divided and did not provide strong support for the monarch. Many Democrats proclaimed themselves Republicans.
Furthermore, the new king faced armed conflicts:
- The Ten Years’ War in Cuba (1868-1878)
- The Third Carlist War (1872-1876)
Lacking support and facing numerous problems, Amadeo I abdicated in 1873.
The First Republic (1873-1874)
With the king’s abdication, Parliament voted by a large majority to proclaim the First Spanish Republic in February 1873, even though the Courts were composed mostly of monarchist deputies. The First Republic was born with little chance of success, although it was received with enthusiasm by the popular sectors in cities.
The Republicans had an extensive program of social reforms and initially intended to organize the state in a decentralized manner. They proclaimed a federal republic, dividing legislative powers between the federal government, federal republics (15 in total), and municipalities.
The Republic faced numerous problems that it could not overcome. The Carlist Wars and the Cuban War grew in importance. Divisions between the federalist Republicans, led by Francisco Pi y Margall, and the unitary Republicans, led by Estanislao Figueras and Nicolás Salmerón, hampered the performance of the government. Cartagena proclaimed its independence, leading to a social revolution that was harshly repressed.
In January 1874, a coup d’état led by General Manuel Pavía dissolved the Courts and handed the presidency to General Serrano, who tried to stabilize the regime with a conservative presidential republic. However, it lacked the social base to support it, and the path was set for the restoration of the Bourbons.