Construction Materials, Methods, and Foundations
Construction Fundamentals
- Human Needs: Satisfying diverse human requirements.
- Techniques: Applying learned technologies and methods.
- Artistic Aspect: Reflecting social and cultural norms.
Construction Process Elements
- Project: Developing graphic and documentary plans for the work.
- Planning: Techniques managing production means, methods, weather, execution phases, interrelationships, and correcting deviations.
- Method: The chosen construction system.
- Material Provision: Supplying materials for each phase.
- Quality Controls: Ensuring requirements for desired quality are met.
Project Execution Components
- Report: Descriptive and constructive details.
- Drawings: Detailed plans.
- Specifications: Statement of conditions and requirements.
- Quantity Survey & Budget: Measurement and cost estimation.
Material Structural Behavior Classification
- Brittle / Compression-Resistant (e.g., Stone): Absorb compression well; resist tension and bending poorly.
- Tenacious / Tension-Resistant (e.g., Wood, Steel): Respond well to compression, tension, and therefore bending.
- Formable / Formwork-Reliant (e.g., Reinforced Concrete): Similar to tenacious materials but require formwork for shaping.
Actions on Buildings
- Permanent Actions: Act constantly; magnitude may be constant (e.g., dead load, prestressing, ground pressure).
- Variable Actions: May or may not act, due to use or climate (e.g., live load, railings, wind, thermal, snow).
- Accidental Actions: Low probability but significant impact (e.g., earthquake, fire, impact).
Early Structural Organization Principles
- Principle of ‘TNT’
- The Porch Concept
- Arch and Vault Systems
- The Strap System
- Triangulation / The Triangle
Building Pathology and Maintenance Concepts
- Pathology: The science studying building damage, its causes, and proposing solutions.
- Maintenance: Interventions performed on a building to preserve its usability.
Soil and Ground Classification
Rocks
Natural aggregates of one or more minerals undergoing substantial structural changes only over long periods in the presence of water (relative to building lifespan).
Features:
- High stability.
- Most appropriate strata for foundations.
- Very resistant to compression.
- Generally show minimal settlement issues.
Soils
- Granular (Coarse) Soils: Composed of rock particles without cohesion (e.g., gravel, sand). Good for foundations if medium to high compactness and sufficient thickness. Resistance primarily due to friction.
- Fine Soils: Consistency and bearing capacity depend significantly on water content (e.g., clays, silts).
Foundation Types
- Shallow Foundations: Isolated footings, combined footings, strip footings, foundation pits, raft/mat foundations (slabs).
- Deep Foundations: Piles (isolated or groups), micro-piles.
- Containment Elements: Diaphragm walls, retaining walls.
Geotechnical Investigation Methods
Test Pits
Hand-dug excavations (e.g., 2m x 1m x 2m deep) providing economical, in-situ information about surface strata and groundwater levels.
Boreholes (Surveys)
Technique to identify the nature and location of soil/rock layers at depth, collect samples, and perform in-situ tests. Small diameter holes are drilled.
Sample Types:
- Altered Samples: Soil structure is disturbed, suitable for qualitative analysis (e.g., classification) but not strength/compressibility tests.
- Undisturbed Samples: Retain natural structure, allowing laboratory testing that simulates in-ground conditions.
Penetration Tests
Involve pushing or driving a cone-tipped tool into the ground to assess soil resistance. Can be dynamic (beating) or static (thrust).
Advantages:
- Low cost.
- Rapid execution.
- Objective, in-situ data.
- Wide applicability.
Limitations:
- Difficult in very hard strata or rock.
Geophysical Methods
Non-invasive techniques to infer subsurface conditions (details not provided in original text).