Constructivism in International Relations: Identity, Memory, and Conflict

Posted on Dec 22, 2024 in Social sciences

Constructivism in International Relations

Constructivism is a theory in International Relations (IR) focusing on how identities, norms, and shared ideas shape the behavior of states and international actors.

• Realism: Argues states act purely based on material interests (power, security), while constructivism emphasizes ideas and identities.
• Liberalism: Focuses on institutions and cooperation, whereas constructivism examines how norms and identities influence institutions themselves.
• Classical Constructivism: Focuses on identity and norms within the framework of existing state interactions.
• Critical Constructivism: Challenges existing power structures, exploring how norms and identities are socially constructed and contested.

Role of Identity in Foreign Policy

Importance: Identity shapes national interests, foreign policy priorities, and responses to external events.

Determination of Identity:

• Internal View: How a nation perceives itself (history, culture, values).
• External View: How others perceive the nation (reputation, global role).

Identity vs. Brand:

• Identity: Deep-rooted, intrinsic values and historical/cultural narratives.
• Brand: Superficial or strategic projection to the external world.

Ontological Security

Definition: A state’s need to maintain a consistent and coherent identity to avoid existential anxiety.

Explains “Irrational” Behaviors: Example: Belgium resisting Germany in World War I despite its strategic disadvantage, driven by its identity of sovereignty and fierce independence.

Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh) Conflict

Nagorno-Karabakh (Artsakh): Disputed region; predominantly ethnic Armenian but internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan. Functioned autonomously before recent conflicts.

Armenia: A nation with a strong Christian identity and long-standing cultural ties to Nagorno-Karabakh.

Azerbaijan: A Turkic, Muslim-majority nation claiming sovereignty over Nagorno-Karabakh.

Turkey: Supports Azerbaijan; associated with Neo-Ottomanism, a strategy to expand its influence in the region.

Neo-Ottomanism: Turkey’s geopolitical strategy rooted in historical Ottoman influence and regional dominance.

Ilham Aliyev: Autocratic president of Azerbaijan since 2003, central to Azerbaijan’s military campaigns.

Ontological Security: Nations act to protect their identity, sometimes over rational material interests.

States will defend their identities. Identities are both externally driven (reputation plays a role) but also intensely personal (wanting to act according to your “values”). When actors are ontologically secure, they do not pose fundamental questions related to existence, finitude, autobiography, and relations. This allows them to maintain cognitive control of their environment, go on with daily life, and have a sense of purposeful agency. Ontological security is unmade by unpredictable events that catch actors off guard and rupture their routines. As a result of crises, actors cannot sustain their narratives about the self and others, which is generating debilitating anxiety. This is ontological insecurity.

Steele’s most recent work is on US ontological insecurity its value for the military with its history of militarism and viewing US policy through the lens of how it treats its veterans. He told the story of the 1932 Bonus Army protests.

Israel and the Occupied Territories (consider how Israel’s identity it built upon both liberal democracy and opposition to atrocity historically). France as a nation open to immigration (particularly from former colonies) and its perception of the burka as being a rejection of its identity. India, Pakistan, and the role of secular democracy and Islamic identity (we will talk more about Kashmir Wed and then also in post-colonialism) Nations of immigrants and support generally for immigration (US possible as one but Canada and many Latin American nations as well)

Key Events in the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict

Crusader States: Historical reference to medieval Christian states, symbolizing Armenia’s role in the region during the Crusades.

First Nagorno-Karabakh War: Conflict (1988–1994) over control of Nagorno-Karabakh; resulted in Armenian forces controlling the region and surrounding areas.

During the fighting, in which between 20,000 and 30,000 people are estimated to have lost their lives, the ethnic Armenians gained control of the region. They also pushed on to occupy Azerbaijani territory outside Karabakh, creating a buffer zone linking Karabakh and Armenia. In late 1991, Karabakh declared itself an independent republic. That de-facto status has not been recognized elsewhere. Armenia itself does not recognize the region’s independence but backs the government. A Russian-brokered ceasefire was signed in 1994, leaving Karabakh as well as swathes of Azeri territory around the territory in Armenian hands. During the fighting, in which more than one million fled their homes, the ethnic Azeri population – about 25% of the total before the war – fled Karabakh and Armenia while ethnic Armenians fled the rest of Azerbaijan. Karabakh is the Russian rendering of an Azeri word meaning ‘black garden’, while Nagorno is a Russian root meaning “mountainous”. The ethnic Armenians call the region Artsakh.

Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE): Mediator in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict through the Minsk Group.

Minsk Group: Co-chaired by Russia, France, and the U.S., aimed at resolving the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.

Serzh Sargsyan: Armenian leader who amended the constitution to retain power, sparking the 2018 Velvet Revolution.

2018 Velvet Revolution: Pro-democracy protests in Armenia, leading to the resignation of Serzh Sargsyan and reforms under Nikol Pashinyan.

Nikol Pashinyan: Reformist Armenian leader who rose to power during the 2018 Velvet Revolution.

Pashinyan appeals to Armenian nationalism, and his declaration that “Artsakh is Ours!” wins support but also compels Azerbaijani plans for war with Turkish aid. Azerbaijan also secured some advanced drone technology, largely from Israel, who seemingly was appealing to better relations with Turkey and in the region.

2020 Azerbaijani Attack: Large-scale conflict aiming to retake Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding territories, drastically shifting control.

September 27: Azerbaijani forces attack Armenian forces and seek to regain land lost in the 1994 war and to remove the autonomous status of the region. Thousands die on both sides and civilian areas are targeted, with the intention being to remove Armenian populations from lands populated since the 1994 war as well as weaken the military over the entire zone. Azerbaijan, with weapons purchased largely from Israel and Russia (and with a noted technological advantage via drone weaponry) drive Armenian forces out of areas controlled since the 1994 cease-fire. November 10, 2020, cease-fire negotiated by the Russians, with very favorable outcome to the Azerbaijanis.

Lachin Corridor: A critical supply route connecting Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia; blocked by Azerbaijani forces.

On Dec 12, 2022, Azeri “protesters” block a 5 km pass called the Lachin Corridor connecting Nagorno Karabakh to Armenia proper used to supply Armenians. Azerbaijan’s official position is that they are “environmental protesters” opposing the mines in the region and mines in general laid by Armenians in the land taken by Azerbaijan in the 2020 war. Armenia’s position is that Azerbaijan is trying to starve out Armenians in Artsakh in at attempt to ethnically cleanse the area and move in Azeris. They deny laying any mines. Russia, who had been monitoring the cease fire, has been distracted by their invasion of Ukraine and hence has not stopped this blockade.

“Environmental Protesters”: Azerbaijani justification for blocking the Lachin Corridor, disputed by Armenia as a move to starve ethnic Armenians in Nagorno-Karabakh.

2023 Azeri Attack: Final campaign to regain control of Nagorno-Karabakh, leading to the mass exodus of Armenians and accusations of ethnic cleansing.

Ethnic Cleansing: Systematic removal of ethnic Armenians from Nagorno-Karabakh through forced displacement and targeted violence.

By all accounts, this is a continuation of the 2020 war, with the Russians clearly not enforcing the cease fire. In essence, the Azerbaijanis have ethnically cleansed the region of its Armenian community, with at least 80% of Armenians fleeing. Azerbaijan has stated that there is no reason to flee, and that Nagorno-Karabakh will be fully integrated into Azerbaijan once the Artsakh government is fully disbanded on Jan 1, 2024. Keep in mind that throughout this war, this region is a part of Azerbaijan. Artsakh had declared independence with the intention of joining Armenia but the practical governance was autonomy and Armenia never stating a goal to annex the region.

Memory, Identity, and Conflict

Charlottesville Riots and Symbols of the Confederacy

Charlottesville Riots (2017): A violent white nationalist rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, that was organized by groups like the “Unite the Right” movement.

“Unite the Right”: A far-right rally that aimed to protest the removal of a statue of Robert E. Lee, a Confederate general. The rally was marked by violence, including clashes between white supremacists and counter-protesters.

Richard Spencer: A prominent leader of the “alt-right” movement, who advocated for white nationalism and was involved in the Charlottesville rally.

Heather Heyer: A counter-protester who was tragically killed when a white nationalist drove a car into the crowd, an act that symbolized the extreme violence of the rally.

“Stars and Bars”: The first national flag of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, often associated with Southern pride and the defense of slavery. It remains a symbol of the Confederacy, with deep ties to racism.

Confederate Flag: A symbol of the Confederacy, particularly during the Civil War, often used by white supremacist groups to evoke the legacy of the South and its fight to preserve slavery.

Blade Runner and Historical Memory

Blade Runner: A science fiction film that explores themes of memory, identity, and reality. The film’s focus on synthetic memories and the creation of artificial beings parallels concepts of historical memory and collective memory.

Historical Memory: How societies remember and interpret past events. It can vary between cultures and is often contested.

History vs. Historical Record: “History” refers to the actual events, while the “historical record” refers to the documentation and interpretation of those events.

Historical Memory: The way societies and individuals remember events, which may differ from the objective historical record due to emotional, social, and political influences.

Memory and Trauma

Trauma and Memory: The connection between traumatic events and how they are remembered. Traumas, whether personal or collective, often shape cultural and historical narratives.

Flashbacks: A term used in psychological studies to describe how traumatic memories resurface. In the context of historical memory, societies may experience “flashbacks” to past conflicts, particularly during times of political stress or national crisis.

(Consider memory under the lens of post-trauma stress and its manifested condition of the flashback—the flashback recalls the past but exists in the present./ Different communities experience this trauma differently, and how it is recalled and presented in contemporary times is filtered through the lens of historical developments./ Trauma and its response is often how we define ourselves—and the need to understand trauma in light of racial violence)

Memory Entrepreneurs and Collective Memory

Memory Entrepreneur: An individual or group that actively shapes or commercializes memories for political, social, or economic gain. These figures often influence historical memory by promoting certain narratives and suppressing others.

Collective Memory: The shared memory of a group of people, often passed down through generations. It shapes national identity and cultural values.

(Steele holds identities as fairly static, but I argue they evolve, alter, and are created out of conflicts. Identity is driven by memory—Blade Runner. History: a narrative of interlocking experiences told potentially from multiple perspectives that comprise a recording and understanding of the past. Historical record: the specific evidence of events in the past. Historical Memory: filtering of history for contemporary interpretation, often used for political purposes; in the formation of identity; for justification for action; key question: What is at stake in the formation and advancement of memory. Memory Entrepreneur: individual or collective actors who seek to alter historical memory. Collective memory: Halbswachs interpretation of how we remember as parts of social settings)

Memory Studies as Constructivism

Memory Studies: The academic field that studies how societies remember and forget past events. Memory studies are seen as a subset of constructivism in international relations, where the focus is on how collective memory shapes national identity, behavior, and conflict.(How much does memory define identity? How static is identity?—the role of change in identity through memory. How unitary is identity?—constructivism as statist and sub-state actors. What can change identity?—the agent/structure debate in constructivism as well as post-structuralism. Who can change identity?—the role of memory entrepreneurship. Contestation, conflict, evolution and change)

Mnemonic Conflicts

(Maria Malksoo, paraphrasing Foucault’s charge that “society must be defended!” states that “Memory must be defended!” as a means to understand the nature of these conflicts) Mnemonic conflicts are disputes over how history should be remembered and interpreted. Some examples include:

• Estonia: Removing Soviet statues in Tallinn, reflecting a battle over national identity and memory of Soviet occupation.
• Poland: Challenging the European Memory Law, which aims to establish a unified historical narrative about Europe’s experience during WWII.
• Brazil: Jair Bolsonaro’s praise for military dictatorship, highlighting a controversy over remembering Brazil’s military regime.
• China and Taiwan/East China Sea: Disputes over the historical narrative of territorial rights, like the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands.
• US Fears over Inflation: Historical memories of economic crises influencing modern-day policy and political decisions.
• Haitian Independence and Slave Revolt: The memory of Haiti’s independence and the 150 million franc indemnity imposed by France is central to post-colonial memory and reparations debates.
• Indigenous Rights and Environmental Issues: Controversies like the Keystone Pipeline and Christopher Columbus reflect conflicting historical memories of colonization and indigenous oppression.
• Pakistan’s History: The reverence for Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, and the role of religion in shaping national identity.
• Atatürk and Modern Turkey: Conflicting memories surrounding Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the evolution of Turkey’s identity, especially around secularism and religion.

(Israel considers the founding of the state as a return to traditional lands (sometimes religious as “the land of Canaan” others a historical return—called the Aliyah./ Examples: what was the most common language spoken by Jews living in Palestine in the 1940s?Yiddish was an offshoot of German and most commonly spoken by European Jews or Ashkenazi. But the most common language was Arabic. So what is the official language?They choose to revive a dead language and create a Modern Hebrew./ For Palestinians, they were a people living on land controlled by others—The Ottomans, and then a promise of independence resulting in a broken promise in what was called the Sykes-Picot treaty./ So, when they were to get their homeland following World War II, Europeans and Americans support a European-fleeing nation who were victims of genocide. Often Palestinians ask “if Germany committed genocide against the Jews, why is Israel not in lands that were German?./ So this is the creation of a European state on traditional Arab (and Muslim) lands. It is colonial. And the loss of the land was a catastrophe, or the “Nakba”./ So to understand the core of the conflict, it is about history and historical memory, tied to identities and narratives)

Cases of Mnemonic Conflicts

• Russia/Ukraine: Conflicting historical memories of Soviet rule, WWII, and national identity.
• Azerbaijan/Armenia: Competing memories of the Nagno-Karabakh conflict and ethnic history.
• Aliyah and Nakba: The conflicting memories of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict—the Jewish “return to the homeland” and the Palestinian “catastrophe” (Nakba) of displacement.

Vietnam War and Memory

Vietnam War Memorial (US): The Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Washington, D.C., is an example of how the US remembers its involvement in the Vietnam War. The memorial emphasizes the trauma of soldiers and the complex legacies of the war.

Ways the US Remembers the Vietnam War: American remembrance has shifted over time, with different generations interpreting the war and its outcomes differently.

War Remnants Museum (Vietnam): A museum in Ho Chi Minh City that presents a Vietnamese perspective on the war, focusing on the devastating impacts of the US bombing campaigns and the long-term trauma of war.

Vietnam’s Memory of the War: Black April marks the fall of Saigon and the end of the war, which is commemorated as a day of reflection and mourning.

Boat People: Refers to the Vietnamese refugees who fled after the war, many escaping by boat, and the long-term trauma of displacement and resettlement.

Museum of the Boat People: A museum that documents the stories of the Vietnamese refugees who fled the war and their journey to new countries.

Vietnam in Hollywood Movies: Films like Apocalypse Now and Platoon have shaped American memory of the Vietnam War, often focusing on the horrors and moral dilemmas faced by soldiers.

(Steele and Subotic argue the whole “spit-on soldier” narrative flattens the veteran experience. Many veterans joined anti-war protests. Many were embraced as they returned. But now all anyone things about the Vietnam war veteran narrative is an unloved and rejected group of soldiers) (Also called the Martyrs cemetary. Over 10,000 soldiers buried here. Every year, on major holidays like Hung King’s Death Anniversary and War Invalids and Martyrs’ Day, thousands of people come from all over the country to Truong Son Martyrs Cemetery to burn incense and pay respect to those who sacrificed for the independence and freedom of the country.)

CON: (Identity matters. But where does identity come from? How is it maintained; how is it altered; how do these alterations create crisis; how do they create conflict. Conflicts over identity, since they are emotional and foundational, may be even more challenging to resolve. Creation of common narratives and who nations choose to celebrate can create a Memory Consolidation (firming them and making them more difficult to alter) and a Memory Solidarity (such as a common understanding of a memory, like the Holocaust). History matters, not just as a part of the narrative, but a part of the present.)

Philosophical Challenges to Positivism

PHI: First is the challenge to positivism. It calls for a humility in the assertions that researchers make about our knowledge of the field. Can we actually know “the world?” Post-modernists argue we cannot, and assertions of positivist knowledge are just tools of domination (again think Foucault). Others like Roy Bhaskar argue that the world does have positive knowledge but it is human limitations that undermine this knowledge. His work is called “Critical Realism” and it strives for improved knowledge but with tremendous humility. By the way this is also popular among many religious traditions. It calls for humility while still trying to build knowledge. It also should open the door to new lines of analysis and critiques of the language we use. And mostly, I want all of you to understand the complexity of discourses of knowledge—of epistemological conversations within social science. the Matrix? It still assumes “reality” vs “illusion.” So it has a positivist foundation.

September 11, 2001: Casualties and Cause of Death

Total Number of Deaths: Approximately 2,977 people died on September 11, 2001, as a result of the attacks.

Most Common Cause of Death: The majority of deaths were caused by blunt trauma from the collapse of the World Trade Center towers and the impact of the hijacked planes.

Key Theoretical Concepts

(Ted Hopf wrote a piece a few years ago called “The Promise of Constructivism in International Relations Theory”. He distinguishes between what he calls “classical constructivism” which focuses on the variable of identity and state behavior. But he has a second area he calls “critical constructivism” which focuses more on the construction of knowledge. In this approach, we can map knowledge within the field and critique what we call knowledge)

Critical Constructivism: A variant of constructivism that critiques how social structures, norms, and power dynamics shape international relations. It challenges the dominant discourse and highlights the role of power and ideology in constructing reality.

Post-Modernism: A philosophical approach that questions objective truth, linear narratives, and absolute meanings, emphasizing the fluidity and subjectivity of knowledge. Post-modernism is skeptical of grand narratives and focuses on the role of language in constructing reality.

Epistemology: The study of knowledge—its nature, scope, and limits. Epistemology questions how we know what we know and explores the justification of beliefs and truths(integrate knowledge).

Positivism: A philosophical theory that suggests that knowledge is only valid if it is derived from empirical observation and scientific method. It focuses on observable facts and avoids metaphysical speculation(scientific method, understanding of the world, produce more peace).

Post-Positivism: A response to positivism, post-positivism accepts that knowledge is not completely objective and that human bias, context, and interpretation shape our understanding of the world(Authors such as Nietzsche see what was called knowledge as rooted in Christian notions privileging Biblical concepts (and power embodied within this knowledge). A Nietzchean example is the power that the clergy get from celibacy as a sort of power over human drives and desires ).

Critical Theory: A school of thought that critiques society and culture, drawing from Marxist theory. Critical theory aims to identify and challenge power structures, inequality, and oppression, with the goal of transforming society(“knowledge” as a means to empower a capitalist order and declare it to be natural. Think about the role of economics in reinforcing the naturalness of capitalism. But all concepts are grounded in the question of who owns the means of production.)

Important Philosophers and Their Theories

Michel Foucault(Why is this important? Well first, the amount of authority we surrender voluntarily based on knowledge and faith in science to “experts” is staggering.):

• Key Contributions: Foucault was concerned with how power and knowledge are interlinked. He explored how institutions (e.g., prisons, schools) shape individuals and societies through control mechanisms, surveillance, and discourse(Michel Foucault, focused on the empowerment of individuals by undermining these sources of “social” power and the “biopolitics” of expertise and the control over our lives, uses these tools to undermine power structures through the exposure of this power)
• Power/Knowledge: Foucault argued that power is embedded in all aspects of life and that knowledge is a tool for controlling and regulating societies(a society-wide network of productive power relations that depend on the operation and extension of ever-more specialized forms of power—power is not something possessed but practiced).(set the stage for future critical discourses: The role of colonization and the expression of this power relationship as natural and rooted in science. Masculinity, power, and the subjugation of the feminine. Economic “development” as stages where states follow the patterns as the “West”).

Rationalism: The theory that reason, rather than sensory experience, is the primary source of knowledge. Rationalists argue that certain truths can be known independently of experience, through logical reasoning and deduction(claims to knowledge could be securely grounded in reason, perhaps in the innate ideas that are inherent in humanity. The Greek ideal is Plato—consider how he conceives of his Republic by outlining principles based on mind experiments. The greatest rationalist discipline in contemporary academies is math—and the notion of the geometric proof. Hobbes “security paradox” is a rationalist construction—his inspiration is Euclid and Galileo).

Empiricism: The theory that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience. Empiricists argue that observation and experimentation are the most reliable sources of knowledge(claims to knowledge are grounded in sense-experience rather than reason. The Greek ideal is Aristotle—he studies the constitutions and performances of known governments in his construction of Politics. Science experiments, most importantly lab experiments, embody the empiricist approach. The Democratic Peace Theory is rooted in empiricism, and the use of quantitative methods are all empiricist).

Kant—Critique of Pure Reason. Key Idea: Immanuel Kant argued that while we can never know the “thing-in-itself,” we can still make sense of the world through our mental faculties. He distinguished between a priori (knowledge independent of experience) and a posteriori (knowledge dependent on experience) knowledge(Neither rationalism or empiricism completely capture our conceptions of knowledge. Knowledge is conditioned by the categories of our understanding (including the concept of causation). How we arrange what we call knowledge affects how we know what we know. This will limit how we understand knowledge based on rationalism. Examples—how we understand sight through “colors”. We are also limited in our inability to experience anything outside of the conditions of space and time. We exist in this space and time. This will limit how we understand knowledge based on empiricism. THEREFORE: we can never have direct knowledge of “things in themselves” existing independent of us as people. This means that the task of philosophy becomes tracing our own limitations and being clear about what we can and cannot claim about the world—what he terms “critique”. Kant is revolutionary in the field of philosophy for bringing in the idea of perspective, and how perspective affects reality. There is no real “truth” out there because our version of reality or truth is based on our own experiences. In short, there may be “truth” per se but we as humans are limited to how we understand it).

Jacques Derrida:

• Key Contributions: Derrida is best known for his theory of deconstruction, which questions the inherent binary oppositions in language and thought (e.g., good/evil, presence/absence). He argued that meanings are unstable and always deferred(Western philosophy is constructed upon dichotomies—pairs of concepts that appear to be opposites of each other. As dichotomies, something is either present or absent—this is how we conceive of knowledge in the world—but they are interconnected and interwoven—understood in the context of one another. Consider the way in which feminine becomes a means by which to differentiate from the masculine—this is what Derrida calls displacement—the terms of the dichotomy cannot exist without the opposite. So what we know is based on a sort of knowledge catalogue—freedom and oppression; rich and poor; democratic and authoritarian; communist and capitalist; war and peace; why so many view gender as a dichotomy. THIS IS THE KANTIAN CRITIQUE OF RATIONALISM).
• Deconstruction: A critical approach initiated by Derrida that seeks to uncover and challenge the assumptions and contradictions in texts, ideologies, and cultural narratives.
• Displacement: The process of replacing or moving an idea, belief, or narrative from its original context. In cultural or political theory, displacement often refers to the way meanings are shifted or suppressed to create new interpretations.

(What is security? We use our rational understanding of what is security (or perhaps our experiences) and then construct insecurity as the opposite. Military power = security so a lack of military power = insecurity. What is anarchy? We define anarchy as the absence of political power, so we construct an image of what this lack of power might look like. What is sovereignty? Sovereignty is defined by government, as we define it as the “right to rule” What is democracy?. The US is our empirical example of democracy so we displace the institutions of the US (such as the vote, or the courts) and then construct our definition as lacking these institutions. OR we create categories of democracy like Vdem does, imagining a continuum based on how close it is to our own primary example of democracy. What is freedom?. Is it a negative freedom, the right to do what you want without being controlled? Janis Joplin once defined it as “just another word for nothing left to lose.” Or is it the freedom to live a happy life? Is freedom the right to choose whether to wear a masj in a pandemic or the demand to wear a mask to protect others? What is power? Power is my definition relational—the ability to compel someone to do something they normally would not want to do (that’s deterrence, or to change their mind and change behavior—that’s compellance).

Other Key Theories and Concepts

Phenomenology: The philosophical study of subjective experience and consciousness. Phenomenology focuses on how individuals perceive and experience the world, arguing that reality is constructed through human experience(How much of what is called “knowledge” based on the subjective experiences of the person declaring their knowledge. Contexts here can be class (that’s Marx); colonial/colonized; race; national identity; historical experiences and memory. How gendered lens conceptualize the different power relationships: is the more powerful intended to protect the weak or should it provide care? How much is our knowledge based on considering a masculine definition the preferable one? Protection presumes the powerlessness is a natural state and the need to protect the weak; care seeks to mentor and empower. KANTIAN CRITIQUE OF EMPIRICISM).

Critical Security: A perspective in security studies that critiques traditional approaches to security, focusing on human security, social justice, and the political, economic, and cultural dimensions of security, rather than just military threats.

Jean Baudrillard—Simulation and Simulacra:

• Key Contributions: Baudrillard argued that in a media-saturated world, simulation (the creation of artificial realities) and simulacra (copies without originals) have replaced authentic experiences and reality itself. In his view, hyperreality—a world in which the boundaries between reality and simulation are blurred—has become dominant.(Americans (notably NOT veterans) do not know what war is. This allows this falsehood about sovereignty and civilians persist. War though is experienced through models that are decidedly NOT war. They are instead simulations of war. people confuse the simulation and think the fake representations are the reality. “simulacra. )

Philosophical Concepts

Ontology: The branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature of being, existence, and reality. Ontology asks “What exists?” and “What is the nature of existence?”

Teleology: The philosophical study of purpose or design in the natural world. Teleology argues that natural processes and phenomena have inherent purposes or goals(focused on the outcomes rather than causes).

Hermeneutics: The theory and methodology of interpretation, particularly the interpretation of texts, language, and symbols. Hermeneutics explores how meaning is generated and understood in different contexts, including historical and cultural contexts.(meanings of language )

Cybersecurity and the Internet

Internet Definition

The internet is a global network of interconnected computers and servers that facilitates communication, data sharing, and access to information.

Physical Existence: The internet physically exists through undersea cables, data centers, and network infrastructure spread across the globe. There is no single central location where it exists; rather, it is decentralized.

Normative Order?: The internet is not inherently a normative order (a system of social rules) but is governed by various protocols, laws, and regulations that establish how it functions.

Means for Communication?: Yes, the internet serves as a primary means for communication, enabling emails, social media, instant messaging, and more.

Relationship with Sovereignty: The internet challenges state sovereignty, as it operates across borders and allows individuals and entities to communicate globally without state control, raising issues of cyber sovereignty and jurisdiction.

Cyber Attacks and the UN Charter

Violation of Article 2(4) of the UN Charter?: Article 2(4) of the UN Charter prohibits the use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state. If a state attacks another state’s online infrastructure, it could be viewed as a violation of sovereignty and a breach of international law, depending on the nature of the attack.

Russia and Estonia:

• 2007 Estonia Cyberattack: Russia allegedly launched a massive cyberattack on Estonia, targeting its government websites, media outlets, and banks after Estonia moved a Soviet-era statue from Tallinn, which was seen as a provocation by Russian nationalists. The attack disrupted the country’s digital infrastructure for weeks.
• Trigger for Response: Estonia’s decision to relocate the Soviet war memorial was seen as a political act that triggered Russian retaliation in the form of cyber warfare.

The CIA Triad

. The CIA Triad is a fundamental model for information security, which focuses on ensuring the protection of data across three core principles: Confidentiality: Ensuring that only authorized users can access certain information. Example of Attack: Data breaches like the Sony hack, where private data was exposed to unauthorized individuals. Integrity: Ensuring that data is accurate, reliable, and has not been altered without authorization. Example of Attack: Data manipulation or file corruption, as seen in attacks on critical infrastructure. Availability: Ensuring that information and systems are accessible when needed, and functional at all times. Example of Attack: Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks that make systems unavailable to users, as seen with Operation Pillars of Defense in Israel.

4. Major Players in Cyber Operations. China’s Cyber Operations: PLA Unit 61398: A division of the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) responsible for conducting cyber espionage and cyberattacks on foreign nations. It has been linked to several attacks targeting U.S. infrastructure and corporations. Capabilities: Cyber espionage, data theft, and intellectual property theft. Launch Methods: Phishing, malware, and targeted attacks. Russia’s Cyber Operations: Unit 121: A Russian military cyber unit associated with state-sponsored cyberattacks. Internet Research Agency (IRA): A Russian group known for its role in social media manipulation and information warfare, particularly during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Russian “Troll Farms”: Online operations designed to manipulate public opinion and spread disinformation. North Korea’s Cyber Operations: Lazarus Group: A hacking group associated with North Korea, responsible for the Sony hack and attacks on financial institutions. Lazarus Heist: A large-scale operation aimed at stealing money from global banks, such as the Bangladesh Bank hack. Iran’s Cyber Operations: Stuxnet: A sophisticated malware, believed to be created by the U.S. and Israel, that targeted Iran’s nuclear enrichment facilities. Cyber Espionage: Iran is suspected of conducting espionage and cyberattacks targeting critical infrastructure and geopolitical adversaries.

5. Weaponization of Social Media. Examples: Russian Influence Operations: The Internet Research Agency (IRA) used social media manipulation to influence the U.S. presidential election in 2016 through disinformation campaigns, fake accounts, and bot-driven content. StopFake: A Ukrainian initiative to combat Russian disinformation campaigns during the Russia-Ukraine conflict by identifying and debunking fake news. #Pizzagate: A conspiracy theory propagated on social media, falsely alleging a child trafficking ring involving prominent political figures. Effectiveness: Social media manipulation has been highly effective in influencing public opinion, shaping political discourse, and even swaying elections, as seen in the 2016 U.S. election and Brexit.

6. Internet Governance. How is the Internet Governed?The internet is governed through a combination of multilateral institutions, national regulations, and private sector control. Key organizations include: ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers): Manages domain names and IP address allocation. Internet Governance Forum: A platform for discussing internet governance issues, including security, privacy, and access. Effectiveness of Governance: Internet governance is often fragmented, with differing national regulations (e.g., China’s Great Firewall) and debates about net neutrality and data privacy. There is no single global regulatory body with the authority to enforce uniform rules.

Key Terms and Concepts. Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act: Provides immunity to internet service providers and platforms from liability for user-generated content, often debated in the context of regulating harmful content online. Digital Services Act: A European Union regulation aimed at regulating digital services, enhancing user safety, and holding platforms accountable for illegal content. Sony Hack: A significant cyberattack on Sony Pictures, attributed to North Korea, involving data breaches and the release of confidential information. Lazarus Heist: North Korea’s cyberattack to steal money from financial institutions, known for its audacity and complexity

1. Environmentalism as Post-Industrial: Environmentalism, in the post-industrial context, focuses on the need for sustainable development, conservation, and the balance between economic growth and environmental protection. It emerged as societies began to recognize the environmental costs of industrialization.

2. Key Philosophers and Approaches. Jeremy Bentham and Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism: The ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham that advocates for actions that maximize overall happiness or well-being. In environmental ethics, it can be used to argue for policies that benefit the greatest number of people and the environment. Immanuel Kant and the Inherent Value of Life: Kant’s Philosophy: Kant argued that life has intrinsic value. This perspective emphasizes respecting life and nature for their inherent worth, rather than merely for their utility to human beings. Western Approaches to the Environment: Western environmental ethics often focus on nature’s instrumental value (usefulness to humans) and resource management, with a growing emphasis on sustainability and conservation in modern times. (The notion of “subduing” the open land and “taming” the wilderness). Indigenous Approaches to the Environment: Indigenous environmental ethics often see nature as sacred and interconnected with human life, emphasizing stewardship, balance, and respect for ecosystems. Transcendentalism—Nature as God’s Creation: A philosophical movement, led by thinkers like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, that sees nature as a divine creation and advocates for a deep, spiritual connection with the natural world.

3. Key Figures in Environmentalism. John Muir and Green Spaces: A naturalist and conservationist who helped establish the National Parks system in the U.S. He advocated for the preservation of wilderness, viewing nature as sacred. Theodore Roosevelt and Green Spaces as a Test of Masculinity: Known for his role in creating national parks and protecting public lands, he also framed conservation as a measure of manliness and American strength. Gifford Pinchot and Progressive Conservation: As head of the U.S. Forest Service, he promoted scientific management of forests and the establishment of protected areas. His philosophy led to the creation of the national parks and forests system in the U.S.

4. Environmental Justice: The movement that seeks to address the disproportionate environmental burdens on marginalized communities. It advocates for equitable access to clean air, water, and land for all people, regardless of race or socioeconomic status.

5. Key Environmental Documents and Concepts. Stockholm Declaration: 1972: The Stockholm Declaration was a landmark conference that established international environmental law and the principles of sustainable development, focusing on human rights and environmental protection(the sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental policies, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction). Brundtland Report—Definition of Sustainability: 1987: The Brundtland Report defined sustainability as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Precautionary Principle: The precautionary principle suggests that in the face of environmental threats, action should be taken even if scientific evidence is not conclusive, to prevent harm to the environment or human health (The environment is a good to be protected for its own good, not just for how it can benefit us. Whoever proposes to change the environment needs to demonstrate they will not harm it) Polluter Pays Principle: The principle that those who cause environmental damage should bear the costs of managing and remedying the damage, rather than society at large.

6. Collective Action Problems. Free Rider Problem: A situation in which individuals or nations benefit from resources or efforts without contributing to the cost, such as global environmental efforts where some countries may not reduce emissions but still benefit from the collective actions of others(It requires more than one actor to resolve the problem—no one state or company can just “fix” it themselves. The “good” cannot be denied those who do not contribute to providing it (ex. Clean air). It requires most if not every actor to contribute in order to resolve the problem or provide the “good”). Tragedy of the Commons: A situation where individuals or nations overuse a shared resource, leading to its depletion or destruction because there is no incentive to conserve it for future use.

7. Environmental Regimes: Four Stages of Regimes: 1.Issue Definition: Clearly identifying the international environmental issue. 2.Fact-Finding: Gathering data and understanding the causes and effects of the issue. 3.Bargaining on Regime Creation: States negotiate their interests and propose solutions. 4.Regime Strengthening: Building support and making sure that the agreements are effectively implemented and enforced. 1992 Rio Conference: Three Foundational Conventions: International Framework Convention on Climate Change (IFCCC/UNFCCC): An international treaty focused on stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations to prevent dangerous climate change. Convention on Biodiversity (CBD): A global agreement aimed at conserving biodiversity, ensuring sustainable use, and fairly sharing genetic resources (the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from commercial and other utilization of genetic resources). Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD): Focuses on preventing desertification, land degradation, and mitigating the effects of drought.

8. Biodiversity and Conservation Protocols: In-Situ: Conservation of species in their natural habitat. Ex-Situ: Conservation of species outside their natural habitat, such as in zoos or seed banks. Cartagena Protocol: An international treaty aimed at protecting biodiversity from the potential risks posed by genetically modified organisms (GMOs). (all new technologies should be based on the precautionary principle, ensuring Biodiversity protections.  Creates a Biosafety Clearing House, to improve information about living modified organisms that are traded and transported across country borders). Nagoya Protocol: A treaty focusing on the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from the use of genetic resources, especially in developing countries.(US has refused to sign either Protocol. Cartagena has 171 ratifiers; Nagoya has 115. CBD has 196 ratifiers; US has signed but not ratified). Kunming-Montreal Biodiversity Framework: An international agreement on the protection of biodiversity, focusing on conservation goals, and setting targets to protect ecosystems and species. (Protect and Restore (with a 2050 target date). Prosper with Nature (green development). Share Benefits Fairly. Invest and Collaborate)

9. Environmental Challenges: Transboundary Air Pollution: Air pollution that crosses national borders, affecting neighboring countries. Acid rain is an example of transboundary air pollution. (sulfur dioxide and nitrogen emissions, largely from coal as an energy source). Ozone Depletion: The gradual thinning of the ozone layer, caused primarily by chemicals like CFCs, which increases UV radiation and contributes to global warming. (Montreal Protocols—reduce CFCs by 50% by 1999. Within months of the Montreal protocol: Antarctic hole). Toxic Waste: 300 million to 500 million traded annually—ways for the wealthy to ship their toxic waste to the poor nations for profit. E-waste has become a particularly important issue. The Basel Convention regulates this trade, but generally seen as weaker than most provisions in the developed states. International Whaling Convention: 1946: The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was established to regulate whaling and promote the conservation of whale populations worldwide.

10. De-Growth: An economic theory advocating for the reduction of production and consumption in order to achieve environmental sustainability, arguing that perpetual economic growth is unsustainable and leads to environmental degradation

1. Why Should We Have Confidence in the Science of Climate Change? Consistent evidence from a variety of disciplines (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, geology). Peer-reviewed research and broad scientific consensus (97% of climate scientists agree on human-caused climate change). Long-term data from satellites, ice cores, tree rings, and ocean temperatures.

2. What Is the Difference Between Climate and Weather? Weather refers to short-term atmospheric conditions (hours to weeks) in a specific place (temperature, precipitation, wind). Climate is the long-term average of weather patterns over a much longer period (decades to centuries). Importance: Climate change refers to shifts in climate patterns over long periods, while weather can fluctuate rapidly.

3. What Causes Climate Change? Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, causing global warming: CO₂ (Carbon Dioxide),CH₄ (Methane),N₂O (Nitrous Oxide),Water Vapor (indirectly affected by human activities),Ozone (O₃),Sources of GHGs: Fossil fuel burning, deforestation, industrial processes, agriculture, and waste.

4. What Is the Difference Between Mitigation and Adaptation? Mitigation: Efforts to reduce or prevent the causes of climate change. Examples: carbon offsets, carbon taxes, geoengineering, methane reduction, carbon capture, shifting to renewable energy, reducing greenhouse gas emissions.  Adaptation: Adjusting to live with the already-inevitable impacts of climate change. Examples: coastal erosion management, preparing for environmental refugeeism, improving disaster preparedness, enhancing public health systems.

5. What Variables Should Determine Which Source of Energy a Nation Should Use? Cost of energy production and transition. Availability of natural resources (e.g., wind, sunlight, water). Technological feasibility and infrastructure requirements. Environmental impact (GHG emissions, biodiversity effects). Energy security and national independence from fossil fuels. Economic considerations, including job creation and industry development. Cost of Global Transition to Green Energy: Rough estimates of trillions of dollars; feasibility varies by nation and region.

Types of Energy Sources: Biomass: Organic materials like ethanol, biodiesel, switchgrass, algae. Hydropower: Energy from water, mainly dams. Solar Power: Harnessing energy from the sun (panels, CSP). Wind Power: Wind turbines to generate electricity. Geothermal: Heat energy from beneath the Earth’s surface. Tidal and Wave Power: Energy from ocean tides and waves. Blue Hydrogen: Hydrogen derived from natural gas (with carbon capture). Green Hydrogen: Hydrogen produced through the electrolysis of water using renewable energy. Heat Pumps: Devices that transfer heat for heating and cooling buildings. Nuclear: Energy from nuclear reactions (fission of uranium or plutonium).

Mitigation Strategies. Carbon Offsets: Projects that reduce emissions elsewhere to balance out one’s own carbon footprint. Carbon Taxes and Policies: Taxes or policies to reduce fossil fuel consumption and promote greener alternatives. Geoengineering: Large-scale interventions to alter the Earth’s climate system (e.g., solar radiation management, carbon capture). Methane Reduction: Efforts to reduce methane emissions (e.g., from agriculture, landfills, natural gas production). Carbon Capture Technology: Technologies to capture CO₂ from the atmosphere or industrial sources. Changing the Global Diet: Shifting towards plant-based diets to reduce emissions from livestock production.

Adaptation Strategies: Environmental Refugeeism: Preparing for the migration of people due to climate-induced displacement. Action Against Extreme Weather: Strengthening disaster preparedness and response strategies. Coastal Erosion and New Vegetation: Protection and restoration of coastal areas. Vulnerability Reports: Analyzing and addressing regions and communities most vulnerable to climate change. Research on Disease Eradication: Preparing for the effects of climate change on public health.

Climate Justice: Small Island Nations: Highly vulnerable to sea-level rise, such as the Maldives. Advocacy for global action to combat climate change. Public Diplomacy Campaign: Efforts by vulnerable nations to highlight their climate vulnerabilities and seek international assistance.

Climate Treaties and Actions: 1992 International Framework Convention on Climate Change (IFCCC): A global treaty aimed at reducing global warming and greenhouse gas concentrations. (Part of the 1992 Rio Conference—the most transformative environmental conference. Establish an inventory of greenhouse gases to set the benchmarks for levels of reduction (data gathering). Creation of the IPCC. Climate financing to aid in the transition to new technologies (part of Agenda 21). By 2000, Annex 1 (developed) countries stabilize their Greenhouse gas emissions at 1990 levels). Kyoto Protocols (1997): Legally binding emissions reduction targets for developed nations. (Cap and Trade: Carbon trading based on A model created by the acid rain negotiations—trading and creating a market for certificates. mandatory targets on greenhouse-gas emissions for the world’s leading economies which have accepted it. These targets range from -8 per cent to +10 per cent of the countries’ individual 1990 emissions levels. Total reduction of at least 5 per cent below existing 1990 levels by 2012./ To compensate for the sting of “binding targets,” as they are called, the agreement offers flexibility in how countries may meet their targets./ They may partially compensate for their emissions by increasing “sinks” — forests, which remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere./ That may be accomplished either on their own territories or in other countries. Or they may pay for foreign projects that result in greenhouse-gas cuts.)( Non annex 1 countries would not agree to any sort of hard targets—especially China and india. Lack of support for domestic political reasons for the rejectionist states—US, Russia, Australia. 2008 Financial crisis still lingering, eroding support in general for environmental issue). Annex 1 Nations: Developed countries responsible for significant historical emissions. Cap and Trade: A market-based system where companies trade emission allowances. Mandatory “Binding” Targets: Obligations to meet specific emissions reductions. Carbon Sinks: Natural systems (forests, oceans) that absorb more carbon than they release. Paris Climate Accords (2015): Shift focus from greenhouse gas emissions as the benchmark to temperature increases: focus on the effects more than the causes. An international agreement to limit global warming to below 2°C, ideally to 1.5°C. Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): National plans for reducing emissions. Green Climate Fund: Financial assistance to developing nations for climate adaptation and mitigation. US Withdrawal and Return to Paris: The US initially withdrew(green fund) in 2017, but rejoined in 2021 under President Biden(national security issue as well as foreign policy priority, Creation of a domestic climate policy office, Pausing all fossil fuel exploration on federal lands). Glasgow Climate Pact (2021): Commitment to further climate action and updating NDCs by 2025 (“phase out” coal). Loss and Damage Fund: A proposal to provide financial support for countries affected by the impacts of climate change. Adaptation and Mitigation Finance: Financial resources dedicated to supporting both adaptation and mitigation efforts. developed countries had missed their 2020 target of providing US$100 billion a year in climate finance to help developing countries Inflation Reduction Act (2022): US legislation that includes provisions for reducing emissions and promoting renewable energy development. it Is meant to position the US as a leader of climate action, not a reject