Core Concepts in Language Study
Theories on Language Origins
Divine Source Theory
Human beings are believed to be “hard-wired” to understand and produce language.
Natural Sound Source (Onomatopoeia)
This theory suggests original words imitated natural sounds. For example, the word for ‘dog’ might have been ‘hau-hau’, and for a snake, ‘hiss’.
Social Interaction Source
Language may have developed from sounds used during group activities. Examples: “gmrrr” [Come here and help me pull this.], “raur!” [Pull harder.], “mmmm…” [Okay, you can stop.]
Physical Adaptation Source
Human physical features, while less suited for chewing or swallowing compared to other animals, have evolved in ways that support spoken language (e.g., teeth, larynx).
Tool-Making Source
The cognitive abilities and structures required for complex tool use might parallel those needed for language development.
Genetic Source (Innateness Hypothesis)
This perspective suggests a genetic predisposition for language. An anecdotal example sometimes cited (though linguistically unfounded) involves comparing early child sounds to specific languages.
Key Properties of Human Language
Reflexivity
The ability to use language to talk about language itself. Example: “Writing ‘there’s lots of examples’ in an essay is too informal. It is better to write: ‘There are several examples.’”
Displacement
The ability to refer to past, future, or non-present events/objects. Example: “We got out of the exam, I guess it was 11:00 AM. We all went down to ‘Dwunastka’. By noon, we were four sheets to the wind. I’m okay now [6:00 PM].”
Arbitrariness
There is generally no natural connection between a linguistic form (a word) and its meaning. Example: The concept ‘dog’ is represented by different sounds in different languages: dog (English), pies (Polish), chien (French), an cù (Gaelic).
Productivity (Creativity)
The ability to create and understand novel utterances. Humans can produce sentences never heard before. Example of neologisms/wordplay: “What is he knoo–ing? I know he’s going to problematize everything – you know, cause problems. The whole situation is very pwsz-ish.”
Cultural Transmission
Language is passed down from one generation to the next within a culture. Children acquire the language of their environment, not one based on parental genetics.
Duality (Double Articulation)
Language operates on two levels: a level of distinct sounds (e.g., /b/, /n/, /iː/) which are meaningless individually, and a level where these sounds are combined to form meaningful units (e.g., /biːn/ – bean).
Semantic Roles in Sentences
Identifying the roles entities play in a sentence:
- Agent (1): The entity performing the action.
- Theme (2): The entity undergoing the action or being described.
- Instrument (3): The entity used to perform the action.
- Experiencer (4): The entity experiencing a feeling, perception, or state.
Examples:
- Mary4 (Experiencer) saw the house2 (Theme).
- Mary1 (Agent) painted the house2 (Theme).
- Mary1 (Agent) hit John4 (Experiencer) with a paintbrush3 (Instrument).
Lexical Relationships Between Words
How word meanings relate to each other:
- Synonymy (1): Words with closely related meanings (e.g., erroneous / wrong). Example: “That’s erroneous.” “Huh?” “That’s wrong!”
- Antonymy (2): Words with opposite meanings (not explicitly exemplified here, but implied by the list).
- Hyponymy (3): A hierarchical relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another (e.g., snake is a hyponym of reptile). Example: Reptiles(Hypernym) include snakes(Hyponym), lizards(Hyponym), turtles(Hyponym) & crocodiles(Hyponym).
- Polysemy (4): A single word having multiple related meanings. Example: Angel can refer to a celestial being, a well-behaved child, or an “angel investor”4 providing money4.
- Metonymy (5): Using a related concept to stand in for the word itself (e.g., place for institution). Example: “You can ask the Zamek(Castle/Institution), but I don’t think they’ll agree. Of course, they’ll say they’re only doing what Warszawa(Warsaw/Government) says.” (Also, angel cake5 being light like angels5 in heaven5 might relate here or to polysemy depending on interpretation).
Child Language Acquisition Stages
Cooing
Early vowel-like sounds (e.g., eeeeeee! g-g-g-g-…).
Babbling
Combining consonants and vowels into syllables (e.g., baba, baba, baba, mama, mama…).
Holophrastic Speech (One-Word Stage)
Single words used to express broader meanings or phrases. Example: “Doggie!” (Could mean: “I see a dog,” “Do you see a dog?” “Dog, come here,” “Don’t let the dog out,” or “Give some food to the dog.”)
Overextension
Applying a word to a wider set of objects than appropriate. Example: A child pointing at a cow, a horse, and a goat, calling each one “cow!”
Overgeneralization
Applying grammatical rules too broadly, especially with irregular forms. Example: “Mummy goed outside.” “Timmy falled down.”
Linguistics Concepts and Questions
Langue (Saussure)
According to Ferdinand de Saussure, langue refers to the abstract, systematic rules and conventions of a signifying system; it is the shared social code of language.
Identifying Language Origin Theories
Question: If someone proposes that language developed from people living in groups and making noises to communicate during common activities, which theory is this?
Answer: Social Interaction Theory.
Identifying Language Properties: Reflexivity
Question: Which scenario illustrates reflexivity?
Answer: A mother corrects her daughter’s speech (using language to talk about language).
Identifying Language Properties: Displacement
Question: Telling a friend tonight about something that happened earlier today illustrates which characteristic?
Answer: Displacement.
Animal Communication vs. Human Language
Question: Why did Herbert Terrace doubt that chimpanzees manipulating images for treats were using language in a human way?
Answer: Because they had merely found a complex way to get something they wanted (lacking other key properties like syntax, productivity beyond requests, etc.).
Identifying Semantic Roles
Question: In the sentence “The boy broke the window”, what is the semantic role of “window”?
Answer: Theme.
Identifying Lexical Relations: Hyponymy
Question: Which pair illustrates a hyponymous relationship?
Answer: vegetable/carrot (carrot is a hyponym of vegetable).
Identifying Lexical Relations: Polysemy
Question: The word “love” having multiple related meanings (strong affection, the act of feeling it, the object of affection, enjoying something greatly) is an example of what?
Answer: Polysemy.
Language and the Brain (Neurolinguistics)
Wernicke’s Area
Damage to Wernicke’s area (posterior speech cortex) typically results in difficulties with language comprehension (understanding speech).
Speech Errors: Malapropism
Question: What is an example of a malapropism?
Answer: Saying “That’s just a pigment of your imagination” instead of “figment”. (A malapropism is the mistaken use of a word in place of a similar-sounding one, often with unintentionally amusing effect).
Dichotic Listening
Experiments in dichotic listening have found that language sounds are often processed more effectively when presented to the right ear (which connects primarily to the left hemisphere, dominant for language in most people).
More on Child Language Acquisition
Babbling vs. Cooing
Question: Why is babbling considered more advanced than cooing?
Answer: Because in babbling, consonants and vowels are combined into syllable-like sequences.
Holophrastic Stage Definition
Question: What does “holophrastic” refer to in child language?
Answer: It refers to the stage where a child uses single words to express a complete phrase or idea (e.g., “bed” might mean “Go to bed”).
Overgeneralization Explanation
Question: Why might a child say “daddy went out” at age 2 but “daddy goed out” at age 3?
Answer: This likely occurs because by age 3, the child is learning the general rule for forming the past tense (adding -ed, pronounced /d/ or /t/) and overapplies it to irregular verbs (like go/went).
Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
Pronunciation Challenges in SLA
The experience of writers like Joseph Conrad (who learned English as an adult) suggests that acquiring native-like pronunciation can be particularly challenging for adult second language learners compared to grammar or vocabulary.
Affective Factors in SLA
In SLA, affective factors refer to non-linguistic variables related to the learner’s emotions, attitudes, and motivation. This includes how the learner feels about the language, the culture associated with it, the learning environment, and their own ability to learn.
Motivation in SLA: Instrumental
Question: Which scenario exemplifies instrumental motivation?
Answer: “It’s a stupid language, but if I can show my A2 certificate in French, they may hire me.” (Instrumental motivation involves learning a language for a practical goal, like getting a job, rather than for personal interest or integration).
Further Linguistics Topics for Review
Consider briefly presenting aspects from the following areas:
- Chapter 13 (Child Language Acquisition): Telegraphic speech, Features of caregiver speech (motherese/parentese).
- Chapter 14 (Second Language Acquisition): Integrative motivation (contrasting with instrumental).
- Chapter 12 (Neurolinguistics): Localization (brain areas for language), Slips of the ear (misperceptions of speech).