Core English Grammar Concepts: Structure and Usage

Posted on Apr 5, 2025 in Linguistics and Applied Languages

Unit 1: Introduction to Grammar Fundamentals

What does morphology deal with?

Morphology deals with the system of word formation, looking at the structure of words and the rules for word formation. It allows us to divide words into morphemes.

What is the object of study in syntax?

Syntax studies patterns of word arrangement. It involves the ways and rules by which words combine to form grammatical sentences.

Why is grammar controversial in language teaching?

Whether grammar should be taught and how it should be taught remains a matter of controversy today, especially regarding its role in teaching foreign languages.

Define prescriptive grammar.

Prescriptive grammar provides rules for what is considered ‘correct’ usage.

Define descriptive grammar.

Descriptive grammar describes how a language is actually used by its speakers.

Define generative grammar.

Generative grammar provides rules intended to generate an infinite number of grammatical sentences in a language.

Briefly explain the principles of functional grammar.

Functional grammar is used to understand and explain how significant and functional patterns of words help us create meaning. We make choices that vary according to the purpose, medium, and addressee of the message. Grammar is about turning words into messages, whose meaning is always flexible. It argues that grammar should be taught with examples from real contexts of grammar in use, implying making the right choices and using the right rules depending on the context.

What kind of data should exemplify grammatical structures?

Teaching grammar cannot be abstracted from the meaning of the syntactic constituents forming a sentence or clause. Both meaning and syntactic structure are important to understand a sentence. Data should ideally come from real contexts of language use.

What concept of grammar is followed in the reference material?

The concept followed is that grammar is a full description of the form and meaning of sentences, or parts thereof. It aims to describe how language works, which is important for both English acquisition and learning. The concept emphasizes communication: turning words into messages with negotiable and flexible meanings.

What do we perceive about language early in life?

Quite early in life, we become aware that the language around us is not always the same but changes according to different situations.

What influences language choice?

Language choice is influenced by aspects of the context in which it is used.

What is a text?

A text is a piece of language in use; that is, “language that is functional”.

What is texture?

A text has texture, which comes from the way meanings within the text fit coherently together. Structure refers to the way most pieces of language contain certain structural elements.

Define context of culture.

Context of culture is the outer context surrounding a text. Its importance lies in shaping messages, evident in differences in forms of address, ceremonies, and significant activities between cultures.

Define context of situation.

Context of situation covers the external factors that make a text what it is: the participants (speaker, listener), the action, the place, and the time.

List the levels distinguished in English Language study.

• Extralinguistic levels: Context of culture and context of situation.
• Linguistic levels:
  • Content levels: Semantics realized in lexicogrammar.
  • Expression level: Phonology, gestures, and graphology.
• Register variables: Field, tenor, and mode.

Briefly define field, tenor, and mode.

• Field: Refers to what is happening, the nature of the social activity.
• Tenor: Refers to who is taking part, the nature of the participants and their relationships.
• Mode: Refers to what part the language is playing in the situation (e.g., spoken, written).

What are the basic components of linguistic description?

• Phonology: The sound system.
• Morphology: Word formation.
• Lexicology: The study of the lexicon (vocabulary).
• Syntax: Sentence structure.
• Semantics: The study of conventional linguistic meaning.
• Graphology: The spelling system and punctuation.
• Pragmatics: The meaning of utterances in context, beyond the sentence level.

Is there a one-to-one correspondence between categories and functions?

No, there is no one-to-one correspondence. A category may realize different functions, and the same function may be realized by different categories.

List the eight traditional parts of speech.

The traditional parts of speech are: adjective, adverb, noun, verb, article, conjunction, preposition, and pronoun. (Note: Articles are often considered a type of determiner).

Which is the minimal unit of grammatical description?

The morpheme is the minimal unit of grammatical description.

What does classifying words using syntactic and morphological criteria imply?

It implies that the division into syntactic categories results from breaking down a sentence into words and assigning words to categories that function similarly along the language continuum.

Difference between phrase and sentence/clause?

A phrase is identified based on the word class membership of at least one constituent word (its head), whereas a sentence/clause is identifiable based on the relations holding among its immediate constituents (typically subject and predicate). For example, “the big dog” is a noun phrase, while “The big dog barked” is a clause/sentence.

How do we identify different types of phrases?

The classification of phrase types reflects the word class of the head word (e.g., noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase).

List the three primary basic elements of phrases.

The three basic elements often identified are the head, the modifier (pre-head element), and the qualifier (post-head element). Determiners are often considered a type of modifier. Example: “An exceptionally simple theory of everything.”

• Determiner: An
• Modifier: exceptionally simple
• Head: theory
• Qualifier: of everything

Define constituent. Give an example.

Constituents are the structural units that form larger grammatical units like phrases, clauses, and sentences. They can often be replaced by a single word (like a pronoun) or moved as a unit. Example: In “[That girl] [is my sister]”, “That girl” and “is my sister” are major constituents of the sentence.

Which is the rank scale of linguistic analysis levels?

The rank scale, from largest to smallest unit, as observed by modern linguistics is typically: Text/Discourse, Sentence, Clause, Phrase, Word, Morpheme, Phoneme (Sounds).

Unit 2: Nouns and Noun Phrases (NP)

What do we use nouns to refer to?

We use nouns to refer to people, animals, things, places, concepts, and qualities, reflecting how we perceive or experience them, thereby conveying our worldview.

What elements can precede the noun in an NP?

Elements that can come before the noun (head) include determiners and modifiers (e.g., adjectives, articles). Example: Good dog. (Modifier: Good)

What elements can follow the noun in an NP?

Elements that can come after the noun (head) are qualifiers, often prepositional phrases, other NPs, finite clauses, non-finite clauses (-ing clauses, -ed clauses, to-infinitive clauses). Example: The man in the blue shirt. (Qualifier: in the blue shirt)

What does “viz.” mean and how is it used?

“Viz.” is a written abbreviation for the Latin word videlicet. It means “namely” or “that is to say” or “as follows”. It introduces a specification, clarification, or list of items mentioned earlier, often preceded by a colon (:).

Give 3 examples of common nouns not listed.

Examples: movie, chair, television.

Difference between common and proper nouns?

Common nouns refer to general classes of entities (e.g., city, dog, person) and are not typically capitalized unless at the start of a sentence. Proper nouns refer to specific, unique entities (e.g., London, Fido, Mary) and are capitalized.

What can proper nouns refer to? List three classes.

Proper nouns can refer to:

• People (e.g., Mary, John Smith)
• Places (e.g., Seoul, Mount Everest)
• Languages/Nationalities (e.g., Korean, French)
• Organizations, Brands, Titles, Days, Months, etc.

Difference between mass and count nouns?

Count nouns refer to entities that can be counted individually and typically have singular and plural forms (e.g., a house, four balloons). Mass nouns (or non-count nouns) refer to entities viewed as indivisible wholes or substances and are not typically counted with numbers; they often lack a plural form and are quantified using words signifying amount (e.g., some music, a piece of advice, wood).

Give three examples of different types/groups of count nouns.

• Concrete count noun: a piece of cake
• Abstract count noun: an idea
• Collective noun (often treated as count): a team

What are collective nouns? Give three examples.

Collective nouns refer to a group or collection of people, animals, or things taken as a whole. Examples: a galaxy of stars, a pack of lies, a cloud of dust. (Others: family, committee, audience)

How do we decide between singular/plural for collective nouns?

The choice depends on whether the group is considered a single, undivided unit (singular verb, e.g., The committee decides…) or a collection of individuals (plural verb, e.g., The committee disagree…). Usage varies between British and American English.

Find 5 examples of nouns used as both mass and count.

Examples: brick (mass: built of brick / count: three bricks), glass (mass: made of glass / count: two glasses), hair (mass: she has brown hair / count: found two hairs), iron (mass: made of iron / count: use two irons), paper (mass: need some paper / count: read two papers).

What does the ending –er indicate in nouns?

The ending -er often indicates a person who performs an action (agent noun, e.g., painter, writer) or something used for a purpose (instrumental noun, e.g., opener).

What does the ending –ness indicate in nouns?

The ending -ness typically forms abstract nouns indicating qualities, states, or conditions (e.g., sadness, kindness, happiness).

What does the ending –ing indicate in nouns?

The ending -ing can form nouns (gerunds or deverbal nouns) indicating activities or processes (e.g., swimming, arrangement, development).

How do we signal gender in English nouns?

Gender in English nouns is primarily natural (based on sex) rather than grammatical. It can be signaled by:

• Using different words: boy/girl, husband/wife, king/queen.
• Using suffixes (less common now): actor/actress, count/countess, hero/heroine.
• Using gender-marking modifiers: male nurse/female nurse, landlord/landlady.

Give examples of different heads of an NP.

The head of a Noun Phrase (NP) may be realized by:

• Noun: the table
• Pronoun: He is here.
• Adjective (nominalized): the rich
• Participle (nominalized): the wounded
• Numeral (nominalized): these two

Explain why “*the all children” is wrong syntactically.

The order of elements within the NP is incorrect. Pre-determiners like all typically precede central determiners like the. The correct order is “all the children”.

Difference between classifying and specifying genitive?

A classifying genitive indicates the type or class the head noun belongs to (e.g., a children’s book – a type of book). It functions more like an adjective. A specifying genitive (or possessive genitive) typically indicates possession or a specific relationship and often functions as a determiner (e.g., John’s book – the specific book belonging to John).

What is the most common type of qualifier/post-modifier in NPs?

Prepositional phrases are the most common type of qualifier/post-modifier in NPs (e.g., the book on the table).

List four types of relative clauses acting as qualifiers.

1. Full relative clauses (finite): The man who was reading the essay is my uncle.
2. -ing clauses (non-finite): The girl wearing the pink dress is my aunt.
3. -ed clauses (non-finite, passive): The boy congratulated at the party is my brother.
4. To-infinitive clauses (non-finite): The woman to be sent to Paris is my grandmother.

Difference between restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses?

Restrictive clauses provide essential information needed to identify the noun they modify. They are not set off by commas. (e.g., My brother that lives in Paris is named David. – implies I have more than one brother). Non-restrictive clauses provide additional, non-essential information. They are set off by commas. (e.g., My brother, who lives in Paris, is named David. – implies I have only one brother, or the specific brother is already known).

True or False Statements:

• Common nouns allude to unique entities. False (Proper nouns do).
• Proper nouns can have singular or plural forms but not both. False (Some can, e.g., the Smiths, referring to the family).
• If we add a determiner, proper nouns can function as common nouns. True (e.g., He is an Einstein).
• Most mass nouns are singular. True (They typically don’t have a plural form, e.g., *furnitures, *advices).
• Politics is an example of: A) mass noun (Though it ends in -s, it’s usually treated as singular mass noun, e.g., Politics is…; sometimes plural if referring to specific political views).
• Some nouns have a ‘dual membership’ and can be used as both mass and count nouns. True.
• Nouns are closed class items. False (Nouns are an open class; new nouns are constantly added to the language).
• The plural form of criterion is adding –s, -es and –ies. False (The plural is criteria).
• Descriptive modifiers may be pre-modified by intensifiers. True (e.g., very tall).
• Classifying modifiers, however, do not admit intensification. True (e.g., *very wooden spoon, *extremely Spanish film).

Unit 3: Determiners and Pronouns

What kind of information do determiners provide?

Determiners specify the reference of a noun, indicating features like definiteness (the, a), quantity (some, many, two), proximity (this, that), or possession (my, her). They signal how the noun referent is particularized within the discourse context.

What do we call determiners when alluding to their elements?

Determiners are words that characterize our reference to entities, actions, events, or states, typically providing deictic (pointing) and quantitative information, described mainly in definite/indefinite and specific/non-specific terms.

What kind of information do articles provide?

Articles provide deictic information, signaling a noun as definite (the) or indefinite (a/an).

What kind of information do demonstratives provide?

Demonstratives (this, these, that, those) provide deictic information, describing reference as specific and indicating proximity (near: this, these) or distance (not near: that, those) relative to the speaker in space, time, or psychologically.

What kind of information do genitive determiners provide?

Genitive determiners (possessives like my, your, his, her, its, our, their, John’s) provide deictic and specific information, signaling various relations, especially possession.

What kind of information do quantifiers provide?

Quantifiers (e.g., some, many, all, few, two, first) signal quantity, which can be exact (two), ordinal (first), or non-exact (some, many).

What does the genitive determinative signal?

It signals different kinds of relations between nouns, especially possession (my book), but also origin (Shakespeare’s plays), description (a children’s story), etc.

Can we combine determiners freely?

No, determiners cannot be combined freely. They appear with nouns and limit their reference. They are often compulsory elements in an NP, and their position is restricted, typically to the initial slot. When multiple determiners occur, they follow a fixed order (pre-determiner, central determiner, post-determiner). Examples: I have a book. The book James lent me is boring.

Types of determiners according to their position.

Determiners can be classified by their position relative to each other within the NP:

• Pre-determiners: Occur before central determiners (e.g., all, both, half, double, such). Example: all the people.
• Central determiners: Mutually exclusive group including articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, that), and possessives (my, your). Example: all the people.
• Post-determiners: Occur after central determiners, including ordinals (first, second), cardinals (one, two), and general quantifiers (many, few, several). Example: the first two chapters.

Define pronouns.

Pronouns are a minor word class whose members typically substitute for nouns or noun phrases. They avoid repetition and refer to entities already mentioned or identifiable from context.

Name 3 classes of pronouns and give examples.

1. Personal pronouns: Refer to specific persons or things (I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them). Example: She went to the store.
2. Possessive pronouns: Indicate possession (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs). Example: The house is mine.
3. Reflexive pronouns: Refer back to the subject of the clause (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves). Example: He hurt himself.

What does ‘one’ usually refer to?

The pronoun one (and its plural ones) typically replaces count nouns and is often anaphoric (referring back). Example: May I have those tapes? Which ones? It can also be used generically to mean ‘people in general’ (e.g., One should always be polite.).

What type of meaning do genitive pronouns convey?

Genitive (possessive) pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs) convey possession or a similar relationship, standing alone without a following noun.

What are the genitive forms of reciprocal pronouns?

The genitive forms are each other’s and one another’s. Examples: They borrowed each other’s notes. The students checked one another’s work.

Explain and give examples of reflexive pronouns.

Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, etc.) are used when the object of a verb or preposition is the same as the subject. They ‘reflect’ back to the subject. Examples: She hurt herself with that knife. He talks to himself to calm down. They can also be used for emphasis (e.g., I did it myself.).

Give an example in which ‘such’ is used as a pronoun.

Such can act as a pronoun, often referring anaphorically or cataphorically. Example: His behaviour was terrible. Such will not be tolerated again. (Here, Such refers back to ‘terrible behaviour’). Another example: His offer was such that I could not refuse. (Here, such points forward to the ‘that’ clause).

Relative pronouns: Why are they considered conjunctions too?

Relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, which, that) introduce relative clauses. They function as pronouns within the relative clause (e.g., as subject or object) while simultaneously linking the relative clause to the main clause, similar to a subordinating conjunction.

Demonstrative pronouns.

Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those) have the same form and meaning as demonstrative determiners but stand alone, replacing a noun phrase. Example: This is my house. (Compare determiner: This house is mine.)

Identify the pronoun and its post-modifier in the sentence: “Who in the world would think that?”

• Pronoun: Who (interrogative pronoun)
• Post-modifier (of ‘Who’): in the world (prepositional phrase adding emphasis/scope)

(Note: ‘that’ functions as the object of ‘think’ in this sentence, likely a demonstrative pronoun referring to a previously mentioned idea).

List and exemplify three possible functions of pronouns.

1. Subject: She works hard.
2. Direct Object: They invited them to the party.
3. Subject Complement: That’s him in the picture. (Note: Prescriptively ‘he’, but ‘him’ is common).
4. Indirect Object: He gave her the book.
5. Object of a Preposition: I spoke to him.

Give examples of pronouns that can be: a) pre-modified by adjectives; b) post-modified by relative clauses.

a) Pre-modified by adjectives (usually vocative or exclamatory): Silly you! Lucky him! b) Post-modified by relative clauses: Anyone who plays with fire will get burnt. Everything that I own is in this box.

What kind of contrasts do personal pronouns show?

Personal pronouns show contrasts in:

• Person: 1st (I, we), 2nd (you), 3rd (he, she, it, they)
• Number: Singular (I, you, he, she, it), Plural (we, you, they)
• Case: Subjective (I, he), Objective (me, him), Genitive (my/mine, his)
• Gender (3rd person singular): Masculine (he), Feminine (she), Neuter (it)

What are the possible functions of Object pronouns?

Object pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, them) function as:

• Direct Object: She saw him.
• Indirect Object: She gave him the book.
• Object of a Preposition: She talked to him.

Unit 4: Adjectives

Describe three types of meanings for adjectives.

According to Carter & McCarthy, adjectives can express:

1. Inherent properties/qualities: Often long-lasting or permanent states (e.g., tall, heavy, old, blue).
2. Human propensities/dispositions: Often related to behaviour or actions (e.g., generous, cruel, polite, talkative).
3. Classifying/Categorizing: Indicating type or category (e.g., wooden spoon, organic vegetables, Spanish film, electric car).

Define and exemplify nominal and participial adjectives.

• Nominal adjectives: Adjectives used like nouns, typically referring to groups of people (often preceded by ‘the’). Example: the extremely wealthy, the poor, the unemployed.
• Participial adjectives: Adjectives derived from verb participles, ending in -ed or -ing. Examples: a very annoying noise, an interested student, a broken chair.

List three suffixes and three prefixes for adjectives.

• Suffixes: -able (usable, comfortable), -al (comical, national), -ful (colorful, helpful). (Others: -ic, -ish, -ive, -less, -ous, -y)
• Prefixes: a- (apolitical, atypical), anti- (antisocial, anti-inflammatory), un- (unhappy, unable). (Others: dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, non-, pre-, post-)

Define gradability and list its degrees.

Gradability refers to the ability of an adjective (or adverb) to indicate degrees on a scale of comparison, showing the extent of the quality it describes. Degrees include:

• Positive: The base form (e.g., cold).
• Comparative: Comparing two items (e.g., colder, less cold, more beautiful). Degrees of superiority or inferiority.
• Superlative: Comparing three or more items (e.g., coldest, least cold, most beautiful). Degrees of superiority or inferiority.
• Equality: Comparing as equal (e.g., as cold as).

Intensifiers modify the degree:

• Quite + adjective often suggests a moderate to superior degree (e.g., quite cold).
• Very + adjective suggests a high/superior degree (e.g., very cold).
• Slightly + adjective suggests a low/inferior degree (e.g., slightly cold).
• Hardly + adjective suggests a very low/inferior degree (e.g., hardly cold).

Give 2 examples of dependents suggesting superior degree.

Examples: quite cold water, very cold water. (Also: extremely cold, really cold)

Give 2 examples of dependents suggesting inferior degree.

Examples: slightly cold water, hardly cold water. (Also: a bit cold, not very cold)

Difference between gradable and non-gradable adjectives?

Gradable adjectives denote scalar properties that can exist in degrees (e.g., hot, big, interesting). They can be modified by intensifiers like very and used in comparative/superlative forms. Non-gradable adjectives (or absolute/classifying adjectives) denote categorical properties that are typically either present or absent (e.g., dead, unique, wooden, pregnant). They usually cannot be intensified with very or used in comparatives (*very unique, *more dead).

Can gradable adjectives be used as non-gradable and vice versa?

Yes, sometimes boundaries blur for effect:

• Non-gradable used as gradable: They were all being very French. (Meaning ‘behaving in a typically French way’). This design is more unique than that one. (Informal, meaning ‘more unusual’).
• Gradable used as non-gradable (often with adverbs like ‘absolutely’): The weather was absolutely beautiful. (Emphasizing the quality).

Can stative adjectives be used in progressive constructions?

Generally, no. Stative adjectives describe states or inherent qualities (e.g., tall, blue, intelligent) which are seen as relatively permanent. Progressive constructions (using ‘be’ + ‘-ing’) usually denote temporary actions or behaviours. You wouldn’t typically say *He is being tall.

Can dynamic adjectives be used with progressive constructions?

Yes. Dynamic adjectives describe qualities that can be controlled or manifested through behaviour (e.g., careful, noisy, patient, foolish). They can be used with progressive constructions to indicate temporary behaviour. Example: He is being foolish. (Meaning he is behaving foolishly right now, not that he is inherently foolish).

What kind of features do dynamic adjectives like ‘foolish’ denote?

Dynamic adjectives like foolish denote qualities often related to controllable behaviour or temporary states. When used with progressive constructions (He is being foolish), they emphasize the temporary nature of the behaviour.

Examples like ‘The French’, ‘The wealthy’ are examples of…?

These are examples of nominal adjectives (or substantivized adjectives), where the adjective functions as the head of a noun phrase, typically referring to a group of people sharing that characteristic.

Define central adjectives. Give three contextualized examples.

Central adjectives are typical adjectives that can be used both attributively (before the noun) and predicatively (after a linking verb), can be pre-modified by intensifiers like very, and can form comparatives and superlatives.

1. She wore a dark jacket. (Attributive) / The jacket was dark. (Predicative)
2. It was a bright day. (Attributive) / The sun is brighter than yesterday. (Predicative, comparative)
3. That’s a light colour. (Attributive) / The lightest colour is silver. (Predicative, superlative)

Find three examples of marginal adjectives (restricted position).

Marginal adjectives often have restrictions on their position (only attributive or only predicative) or cannot be graded.

1. Main: Usually only attributive (the main reason; *the reason is main).
2. Afraid: Usually only predicative (She is afraid; *an afraid girl – though a frightened girl works).
3. Utter: Only attributive (utter chaos; *the chaos was utter).

Define and exemplify attributive adjectives.

Attributive adjectives appear directly before the noun they modify within the noun phrase. Example: a beautiful flower.

Define and exemplify predicative adjectives (contextualized).

Predicative adjectives follow a linking verb (like be, seem, become, feel) and describe the subject. Examples: She is so afraid. The soup tastes good.

Define and exemplify postpositive adjectives (contextualized).

Postpositive adjectives appear immediately after the noun they modify. This is less common in English but occurs in specific contexts:

• With indefinite pronouns: something important, anyone responsible.
• In some fixed expressions/titles: the Princess Royal, attorney general.
• When the adjective itself has post-modifiers: a man proud of his achievements.

Example: The Princess Royal is attending the party.

Explain and exemplify adjectives in attributive and predicative positions.

• Attributive: The adjective comes before the noun. Example: The green door opened slowly. (‘green’ modifies ‘door’).
• Predicative: The adjective follows a linking verb and modifies the subject. Example: This stretch of water is dangerous. (‘dangerous’ describes ‘This stretch of water’).

Give examples of attributive adjectives ending with -ing/-ed.

• -ing: an entertaining movie
• -ed: a defeated heroine, one ashamed boy (Note: ‘ashamed’ is often predicative, but can sometimes be attributive).

Define participial or verbal adjectives. Give 4 examples.

Participial adjectives are derived from verb participles (present -ing or past -ed/-en) but function syntactically as adjectives, modifying nouns or appearing predicatively. Examples: fascinating, bored, tired, interesting.

What structure expresses degrees of equality using adjectives?

We use the structure as + adjective + as. Example: She is as tall as her brother.

How do we express superiority and inferiority using adjectives?

• Superiority: Using the comparative form (-er or more) or the superlative form (-est or most). Examples: Mani is taller than Sam. Mani is the tallest. This book is more interesting than that one.
• Inferiority: Using less (comparative) or least (superlative). Examples: This route is less scenic. This is the least scenic route.

What are modifiers typically realized by in AdjPs?

Pre-modifiers in Adjective Phrases (AdjPs) are typically realized by adverbs (intensifiers) or Adverb Phrases (AdvPs). Examples: extremely difficult (adverb modifier), very wonderfully peaceful (AdvP modifier).

Give an example of an AdjP with an adverb as a qualifier/post-modifier.

Adverbs like enough and indeed can post-modify adjectives. Example: quick enough.

Give an example of an AdjP with a PP as a qualifier/post-modifier.

Prepositional Phrases (PPs) often post-modify adjectives. Example: fond of Mary.

Give an example of an AdjP with a finite clause as a qualifier/post-modifier.

Finite clauses (often ‘that’-clauses or wh-clauses) can post-modify certain adjectives. Example: sure that I can do it.

Identify the adjective phrase in “Her daughter is a beautiful girl.” What type of adjective is its head?

• Adjective Phrase (functioning attributively within the NP): beautiful
• Noun Phrase (functioning as Subject Complement): a beautiful girl
• Head Adjective: beautiful
• Type/Position: Attributive (modifying ‘girl’)

Possible functions of adjectives as sentence constituents.

1. Subject Complement (Cs): Following a linking verb, describing the subject. Example: They’re fairly smooth.
2. Object Complement (Co): Following a direct object, describing the object. Example: The news made Mila very happy.

(Adjectives primarily function within phrases, most commonly as modifiers in NPs or as heads of AdjPs functioning as complements).

Unit 5: Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases

Main types of prepositions by relation expressed.

• Place/Space: Indicate location or direction (e.g., in, on, under, above, below, across, through, towards). Example: The cat is under the table.
• Time: Indicate temporal points or duration (e.g., at, on, in, for, since, before, after, during, until). Example: The meeting is at 3 PM.
• Miscellaneous/Logical: Express various other relationships like cause, purpose, means, accompaniment, concession, manner, agent (e.g., of, for, with, by, about, concerning, regarding, instead of, despite). Example: A book about history.

Example where the same preposition expresses different relations.

Example: I passed by your house yesterday [Space/Location]. I will give you the report by Monday [Time/Deadline].

Define central prepositions. Give a contextualized example.

Central prepositions are typically single, short words that function solely as prepositions (e.g., in, on, at, to, for, with, by, of). Example: Jamie walks to work every day.

Define marginal prepositions. Give a contextualized example.

Marginal prepositions often resemble other word classes (like verbs or adjectives) or are multi-word units. Examples include participles used as prepositions (regarding, concerning, given) or words like like, near, past. Example: Everyone attended except John. (Except can also be a conjunction).

Define transitive prepositions. Give a contextualized example.

Transitive prepositions require a following complement (typically an NP, pronoun, or gerund) to complete their meaning and form a Prepositional Phrase (PrepP). Most prepositions are transitive. Example: Lucas estimated the amount by using a calculator. (Complement: using a calculator).

Define intransitive prepositions. Give a contextualized example.

Intransitive prepositions (often called particles in phrasal verbs or spatial adverbs by some grammarians) do not take a complement. They often indicate direction or location. Example: She climbed up. (Here, up functions more like an adverb of direction).

Define Simple prepositions. Give a contextualized example.

Simple prepositions consist of a single word. Examples: at, in, of, on, for, with, to. Example: The book is on the table.

Define Complex prepositions. Give a contextualized example.

Complex prepositions consist of two or more words that function together as a single prepositional unit. Examples: along with, in front of, according to, because of, instead of, next to. Example: There was a dog in front of the fountain.

The structure of prepositional phrases. Explain.

A Prepositional Phrase (PrepP) typically consists of a preposition (the head) followed by its complement (sometimes called the object of the preposition). The complement is obligatory for transitive prepositions. The complement is usually a Noun Phrase (NP), pronoun, or gerund (-ing form). PrepPs can sometimes be modified (e.g., right behind the door). Structure: [ (Modifier) + Preposition (Head) + Complement ].

Difference between prepositional phrases and other phrases?

Unlike NPs, AdjPs, and AdvPs where the head word can sometimes stand alone to represent the phrase, the preposition in a PrepP cannot occur without its complement (for transitive prepositions). The head (preposition) links its complement to another part of the sentence.

Provide examples of three different types of completives in PP.

1. Noun Phrase (NP): in Paris, for a few months
2. Pronoun: after you, with her
3. Adverb/AdvP: through there, until very recently (Less common, often location/time adverbs)
4. Gerund (-ing clause): by studying hard
5. Wh-clause: about what happened

Preposition stranding: When is it common? Define and exemplify.

Preposition stranding (or P-stranding) is a syntactic construction where a preposition occurs somewhere other than immediately before its complement (object). The complement is often moved to an earlier position in the sentence, leaving the preposition ‘stranded’ at the end of a clause or phrase. It is common and natural in English, especially in informal styles, in:

• Wh-interrogative sentences: Who are you going to the cinema with? (Instead of the more formal: With whom are you going…?)
• Relative clauses (especially defining ones, often with ‘that’ or zero pronoun): This is the book (that) I was telling you about.
• Passive constructions: The matter was dealt with promptly.
• Exclamations: What a mess he got himself into!

Examples:

1. Who are you talking to?
2. That’s the person I gave the book to.

Unit 6: Adverbs and Adverb Phrases

Define “adverbs”.

Adverbs are a word class whose members typically modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or entire clauses/sentences. They provide information about the circumstances of an action, event, or state, such as time, place, manner, degree, frequency, etc.

What type of meaning do they convey?

Adverbs convey a wide range of meanings, including:

• Circumstance: Manner (how? – carefully), Place (where? – internationally), Time (when? – yesterday), Frequency (how often? – often), Duration (how long? – briefly).
• Degree: Intensifying or downtoning (how much? – very, quite, slightly).
• Focusing: Limiting or specifying (only, just, even).
• Stance/Viewpoint: Expressing the speaker’s attitude or perspective (personally, probably, fortunately).
• Linking/Connecting: Connecting clauses or sentences (however, therefore, furthermore).

Structure of the AdvP. Give one example.

An Adverb Phrase (AdvP) has an adverb as its head. It minimally consists of the head adverb alone, but can also contain pre-modifiers (usually other adverbs) and post-modifiers (qualifiers, like PPs or clauses, or ‘enough’). Example: quite incredibly (Pre-modifier: quite; Head: incredibly).

Give one example of adverbs of: manner, place, and time.

• Manner: She sings beautifully.
• Place: They travelled internationally.
• Time: He arrived yesterday.

Give two examples of adverbs of time, definite and indefinite.

• Definite Time: last week, next month, today, now
• Indefinite Time: early, recently, soon, afterwards

‘Hourly’ is an adverb of…?

Hourly is typically an adverb of definite frequency (specifying how often something happens – every hour).

Define intensifying/focusing adverbs.

• Intensifying adverbs (Intensifiers): Modify other words (adjectives, adverbs, sometimes verbs) to scale the meaning up (amplifiers like very, extremely, absolutely) or down (downtoners like slightly, quite, rather, hardly). They denote degree.
• Focusing adverbs: Draw attention to a particular part of the sentence, indicating its importance or limiting the applicability of the statement (e.g., only, just, even, also, especially, particularly). Example: Only John passed the test.

Define stance and viewpoint adverbs.

• Stance Adverbs (Disjuncts): Express the speaker’s attitude, opinion, or assessment of the proposition in the sentence. Types include epistemic (certainty/doubt – probably, certainly), evidential (source of information – apparently, reportedly), and evaluative (judgment – fortunately, surprisingly). Example: Personally, I disagree.
• Viewpoint Adverbs: Specify the perspective or domain from which the statement is made (e.g., politically, technically, financially, logically). Example: Technically, that’s not correct.

Define and give examples of conjunctive adverbs.

Conjunctive adverbs (Conjuncts or Linking Adverbs) connect clauses, sentences, or paragraphs, showing the logical relationship between them (e.g., contrast, result, addition, sequence). Examples: however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, nevertheless, consequently, finally. Example: He studied hard; therefore, he passed the exam.

Look for three examples of adverbs ending in ‘-wise’.

1. The mechanism turns clockwise. (Manner/Direction)
2. Budget-wise, the project is feasible. (Viewpoint – ‘regarding the budget’)
3. She made a smart choice, otherwise she would have regretted it. (Linking/Conditional – ‘if not’)

Give two examples of adverbs that have two forms.

1. Close / Closely: Come close. (Near in space – flat adverb) / He followed the instructions closely. (Carefully – -ly adverb)
2. High / Highly: The bird flew high. (Altitude – flat adverb) / She is a highly skilled engineer. (Degree – -ly adverb)

Define flat adverbs.

Flat adverbs are adverbs that have the same form as their corresponding adjective and do not have the typical -ly ending. They often relate to manner, time, or place. Examples: drive slow (instead of slowly), work hard, come quick, fly high, arrive late.

Difference between AdjP and AdvP regarding syntactic function?

In general terms: Adjective Phrases (AdjPs) typically function as modifiers within Noun Phrases (e.g., a very tall man) or as Subject/Object Complements (e.g., He is very tall). Adverb Phrases (AdvPs) typically function as modifiers of Verb Phrases (e.g., He ran very quickly), Adjective Phrases (e.g., incredibly beautiful), other Adverb Phrases (e.g., very quickly), or as sentence modifiers (Adjuncts, Disjuncts, Conjuncts) (e.g., Fortunately, he arrived on time).

What type of adverbs usually modify other adverbs? Give examples.

Intensifying adverbs (adverbs of degree) commonly modify other adverbs. Examples: so quickly, as fast as, too slowly, more carefully, less often, very well.

What are qualifiers/post-modifiers in AdvP usually realized by?

Post-modifiers (qualifiers) in AdvPs are less common than pre-modifiers but can be realized by:

• The adverb enough: quickly enough.
• The adverb indeed: very well indeed.
• Prepositional Phrases (PPs): fortunately for him.
• Finite clauses (especially after comparative adverbs): harder than I expected.

Give two examples of adverbs modifying prepositional phrases.

Adverbs (often of degree or focus) can sometimes modify entire prepositional phrases:

1. He arrived right behind you. (‘Right’ modifies ‘behind you’).
2. The ball went just over the bar. (‘Just’ modifies ‘over the bar’).

What are the possible functions of adverbs as sentence constituents?

Adverbs and AdvPs function as sentence constituents primarily as Adjuncts (providing circumstantial information like time, place, manner), Disjuncts (expressing speaker stance), and Conjuncts (linking sentences/clauses).

What are the possible functions of adverbs as phrase constituents?

Within phrases, adverbs and AdvPs can function as:

• Modifiers of Adjectives (within AdjPs): extremely difficult
• Modifiers of Adverbs (within AdvPs): very quickly
• Completives of Prepositions (less common): until recently
• Modifiers of Determiners: almost all the people
• Modifiers of Noun Phrases (less common): quite a party
• Qualifiers/Post-modifiers of NPs (rare): the meeting yesterday
• Particles in Phrasal Verbs (within VPs): look up the word

Unit 7: Verbs and Verb Phrases

Inflection and function of verbs: definition and types.

• Inflection: Verbs change their form (inflect) to indicate grammatical features like tense (past/present), aspect (perfect/progressive), mood, voice (active/passive), person, and number. Forms can be finite (tensed, agree with subject, e.g., goes, went) or non-finite (untensed: infinitive, -ing participle, -ed participle, e.g., go, going, gone).
• Function: Verbs function as the head of the Verb Phrase (VP), which typically serves as the core of the predicate in a clause, expressing an action, event, state, or process.

Definition and example of lexical or main verb.

Lexical (or main) verbs carry the primary semantic content (dictionary meaning) of the VP and can usually stand alone in simple tenses. Examples: say, go, know, think, eat, sleep, work. Example sentence: She reads books.

Auxiliary verbs: definition and subgroups.

Auxiliary (or helping) verbs assist the main verb to express grammatical distinctions like tense, aspect, mood, and voice. They have specific syntactic properties (e.g., inversion in questions, negation with ‘not’). Subgroups include:

• Primary auxiliaries: be, have, do (can also function as main verbs).
• Modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must (express modality like possibility, obligation, etc.).
• Semi-modals (or marginal modals): Multi-word verbs with modal-like meanings (e.g., ought to, need to, have to, be going to, used to).
• Lexical-auxiliaries: Combinations that function similarly to auxiliaries (e.g., be able to, be about to).

Definition of tense.

Tense is a grammatical category, primarily marked on the verb, that locates an event or state in time, typically relative to the moment of speaking (present) or a point in the past (past). Future time is often expressed using modal auxiliaries (will) or other constructions, not a distinct tense inflection in English.

Main types of tenses in English.

English has two morphological tenses:

• Present Tense: Unmarked base form (e.g., go) or -s form for 3rd person singular (e.g., goes).
• Past Tense: Typically marked with -ed (e.g., went) or an irregular form (e.g., went).

These combine with aspect (perfect, progressive) to form compound tense/aspect combinations (e.g., present perfect, past progressive).

Difference between present and past tense in English.

The present tense is morphologically unmarked (except for the 3rd person singular -s), while the past tense is typically marked with the -ed suffix (for regular verbs) or involves an internal vowel change or other irregularity (for irregular verbs).

Four different meanings/uses for present tense forms.

The simple present tense form can express:

1. Habitual actions/General truths: The sun rises in the east. He goes swimming every week.
2. Current states: She knows the answer. I am happy.
3. Performatives (speech acts): I promise to help. We apologize for the delay.
4. Historic present (narrative): So, this guy walks into a bar…
5. Future (scheduled events): The train leaves at 5 PM.

Types of events expressed in the past tense forms.

The simple past tense form typically expresses:

1. Completed actions/events in the past: She went to London last year.
2. Past states: He was happy then.
3. Past habits: We often played tennis together. (Can also use ‘used to’).

Definition of aspect.

Aspect is a grammatical category that expresses how an event or state, denoted by the verb, unfolds or is viewed in time. It concerns duration, completion, repetition, or relevance to the time of reference, rather than simply locating the event in time (which is tense). English primarily distinguishes between the perfect and progressive aspects.

Differences between perfect and progressive aspects.

• Perfect Aspect: Formed with auxiliary have + past participle (-ed form). It typically views an event or state as completed relative to a point in time (present, past, or future) and often emphasizes its relevance or consequences at that time. Example: I have finished my work (completed before now, relevant now).
• Progressive (or Continuous) Aspect: Formed with auxiliary be + present participle (-ing form). It typically views an event or state as ongoing, in progress, or temporary around a point in time. Example: I am finishing my work (in progress now).

Definition of mood.

Mood (or Modality) is a grammatical category that reflects the speaker’s attitude towards the factuality or reality of the proposition expressed by the clause. It indicates whether the speaker views the event as a fact, a possibility, a necessity, an obligation, a wish, a command, etc.

Categories of mood in English.

The main categories are:

• Indicative Mood: Used for factual statements and questions about reality. (This is the most common mood).
• Imperative Mood: Used for commands, requests, instructions.
• Subjunctive Mood: Used to express non-factual situations: wishes, hypotheses, suggestions, necessities, possibilities (less distinct morphologically in modern English than in other languages).
• (Modality is also heavily expressed through modal auxiliary verbs).

Uses of indicative mood.

The indicative mood is used to make factual statements or ask questions about situations considered real or factual by the speaker. Examples: I play tennis. Did you play tennis? She has played tennis.

Uses of subjunctive mood.

The subjunctive mood expresses non-factuality, hypothetical situations, wishes, demands, suggestions, or necessities. It often appears in specific constructions:

• In ‘that’-clauses after verbs of demand, suggestion, request (using the base form): I demand that he be present. She suggested that we go.
• In hypothetical conditional clauses (often using ‘were’): If I were you, I wouldn’t do that.
• After ‘wish’: I wish you were here.
• In certain fixed expressions: God save the Queen. Be that as it may.

How is subjunctive mood expressed in English?

The subjunctive is expressed in several ways:

• Using the base form (infinitive without ‘to’) of the verb for all persons/numbers in certain ‘that’-clauses (mandative subjunctive): It is essential that she attend the meeting.
• Using ‘were’ instead of ‘was’ for hypothetical situations (past subjunctive): If he were richer… I wish it were Friday.
• Through inversion in some formal conditional clauses: Were I to go… (instead of If I were to go…).
• In fixed, formulaic expressions: Long live the King! Come what may.

Uses of imperative mood.

The imperative mood is used to issue commands, requests, instructions, warnings, or invitations. It typically uses the base form of the verb and often has an implied ‘you’ subject. Examples: Come here! Please sit down. Don’t touch that!

Uses of interrogative mood.

The interrogative mood is used to ask questions and seek information. It is typically marked by subject-auxiliary inversion (e.g., Are you ready?) or by using wh-words (e.g., What did you say?).

What is voice used for?

Voice is a grammatical category (primarily active and passive) that describes the relationship between the action or state expressed by the verb and the participants identified by the subject and object. It allows focus to be shifted between the agent (doer) and the recipient (patient/undergoer) of the action.

Differences between active and passive voice.

• Active Voice: The grammatical subject is typically the agent (the performer) of the action. Structure: Subject (Agent) + Verb + Object (Patient). Example: Dr. McCarthy gave a talk.
• Passive Voice: The grammatical subject is typically the patient (the recipient or undergoer) of the action. The agent may be omitted or included in a ‘by’-phrase. Structure: Subject (Patient) + Form of ‘be’ + Past Participle (+ by Agent). Example: A talk was given by Dr. McCarthy.

Structure of the verb phrase.

A Verb Phrase (VP) consists of a main verb (lexical verb) as its head, optionally preceded by one or more auxiliary verbs. The auxiliaries carry information about mood, tense, aspect, and voice, appearing in a fixed order (Modal > Perfect ‘have’ > Progressive ‘be’ > Passive ‘be’). Example: might have been being watched (Modal + Perfect + Progressive + Passive + Main Verb).

Differences between transitive and intransitive verbs.

• Transitive verbs: Require a direct object to complete their meaning. The action ‘transfers’ from the subject to the object. Examples: take, break, open, buy, see, hit. Example: She bought a book. (*She bought is incomplete).
• Intransitive verbs: Do not require a direct object. The action does not transfer to an object. Examples: dance, speak, play, arrive, sleep, fall. Example: He arrived.
• (Note: Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive, e.g., eat: He ate lunch (transitive) / He ate quickly (intransitive)).

Define Phrasal verbs and give an example.

Phrasal verbs consist of a lexical verb plus an adverbial particle (e.g., up, down, in, out, off, on). The particle often changes the meaning of the verb significantly. They can be transitive (look up a word) or intransitive (The plane took off). Example: He’ll call back tomorrow.

Define Prepositional verbs and give an example.

Prepositional verbs consist of a lexical verb plus a preposition, which is followed by its object (the prepositional object). The verb and preposition form a semantic unit. The preposition cannot usually be moved. Example: I bumped into my cousin Teresa on Regent Street. (Other examples: look at, listen to, rely on, approve of).

Define Phrasal Prepositional verbs and give an example.

Phrasal-prepositional verbs consist of a lexical verb, followed by an adverbial particle, followed by a preposition. They take a prepositional object. Example: He willingly puts up with her moaning. (Verb: put, Particle: up, Preposition: with. Other examples: look forward to, cut down on, get away with).

Unit 8: Sentence Structure and Constituents

Basic constituents of a sentence.

Sentences are typically analyzed as being composed of clauses. The core constituents of a simple clause are usually a Subject and a Predicate. The predicate contains the verb and any objects, complements, or adjuncts.

Define subject.

The subject is a primary constituent of a clause. Syntactically, it’s typically the noun phrase (or equivalent) that agrees with the finite verb in number and person. Semantically, it often represents the ‘agent’ (doer) or ‘topic’ of the clause.

Difference between English and Spanish regarding the subject?

In English, the subject is generally an obligatory element in declarative and interrogative clauses (except in some informal contexts or imperatives). Spanish is a ‘pro-drop’ language, meaning the subject pronoun can often be omitted because the verb inflection indicates the person and number.

In which type of structure is the subject absent in English?

The subject is typically absent (or implied ‘you’) in imperative clauses. Example: Come here! Don’t do that!

Two prototypical realizations of the subject.

The subject is prototypically realized by:

1. Noun Phrase (NP): Mark gave me the money.
2. Pronoun: He gave me the money.

(Other realizations include clauses: That he left surprised us.)

Semantically, the subject often carries the role of agent (Mark gave…) or topic/theme (The money was given…).

What does the predicator consist of?

The predicator is the core verbal element within the predicate. It is realized by the Verb Phrase (VP), including the main verb and any auxiliaries. It expresses the state, action, or event of the clause.

In English, concord and agreement applies to…?

Subject-verb agreement (concord) in English primarily applies in the present tense, where the verb takes an -s ending to agree with a third-person singular subject (e.g., She walks vs. They walk). The verb be has more distinct agreement forms (am, is, are, was, were).

Give an example of notional agreement. With what type of nouns?

Notional agreement (or concord) occurs when the verb form agrees with the perceived meaning (singular or plural) of the subject rather than its grammatical form. This often happens with collective nouns. Example: The committee have decided to approve this proposal (treating committee as individuals – common in BrE). / The committee has decided… (treating committee as a single unit – common in AmE).

Give two examples of subject clauses and one nominal relative clause.

• Subject Clauses (That-clause / Wh-clause):
  1. That this machine is useless is obvious.
  2. Why he resigned remains a mystery.
• Nominal Relative Clause (Free Relative Clause):
  1. What I need is a long holiday.

Dummy subject/empty ‘it’ and ‘there’: Why this label?

They are called ‘dummy’ or ’empty’ subjects (or syntactic fillers) because they occupy the grammatical subject position, fulfilling the requirement for a subject in English, but they have little or no semantic meaning themselves. It is used in expressions of time, weather, distance, or as an anticipatory subject for a clause. There is used in existential clauses to introduce new information.

• Example (dummy ‘it’): It was fun, but mostly forgettable. It is raining.
• Example (existential ‘there’): There are five stages of grief.

Which is the most informative part in a sentence?

From an information structure perspective, the most informative part of a sentence (carrying new information) is often towards the end of the predicate, known as the focus or rheme.

List the basic components of the predicate.

The predicate contains the verb phrase (predicator) and may also include:

• Objects: Direct Object (Od), Indirect Object (Oi), Prepositional Object (Oprep)
• Complements: Subject Complement (Cs), Object Complement (Co), Locative Complement (Cloc)
• Adjuncts: Adverbials providing circumstantial information (time, place, manner, etc.)

How is the information structure described from a discourse perspective?

From a discourse perspective, clauses are often analyzed in terms of information structure, typically dividing into:

• Topic/Theme: What the sentence is about (often, but not always, the subject; represents given information).
• Comment/Rheme: What is said about the topic (often the predicate; represents new information).

Types of objects and complements. Define each type.

• Objects: Represent entities directly or indirectly affected by the verb’s action.
  • Direct Object (Od): Directly receives the action (e.g., She read the book).
  • Indirect Object (Oi): Recipient or beneficiary of the action (e.g., She gave him the book).
  • Prepositional Object (Oprep): Complement of a preposition required by the verb (e.g., He relies on her).
• Complements: Complete the meaning of the verb or provide information about the subject or object.
  • Subject Complement (Cs): Follows a linking verb (copula) and describes or identifies the subject (e.g., Your sister is very pretty).
  • Object Complement (Co): Follows a direct object and describes or identifies it (e.g., I consider prices there outrageous).
  • Locative Complement (Cloc): Specifies location or goal, required by certain verbs like put, place (e.g., Put the handkerchiefs in the drawer).

Sentence components and realisations, explain.

Sentence components (syntactic functions like Subject, Predicator, Object, Complement, Adjunct) are realized by different classes of units (phrases or clauses). For example:

• Subject: Typically NP, pronoun, or clause.
• Predicator: VP.
• Object (Od, Oi): Typically NP or pronoun.
• Complement (Cs, Co): Typically AdjP, NP, sometimes PP or clause.
• Adjunct: Typically AdvP, PP, sometimes NP or clause.

Is there a one-to-one correspondence between class of unit and syntactic function?

No, there is no strict one-to-one correspondence. While certain classes typically realize certain functions (e.g., NPs often function as Subjects or Objects), many classes can fulfill different functions, and functions can be realized by different classes. For instance, the NP “next time” can function as:

• Subject: Next time we’ll be better.
• Adjunct: I’ll know better next time.
• Direct Object: We’ll enjoy next time.

Classes of clauses: define and give an example of each type.

• Main/Independent Clause: Contains a subject and predicate and can stand alone as a complete sentence. Example: The girl smiled.
• Subordinate/Dependent Clause: Contains a subject and predicate but cannot stand alone; it functions as part of a larger clause (e.g., as a subject, object, complement, or adjunct). It is often introduced by a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun. Example: The girl whom I met yesterday smiled. (Relative clause modifying ‘girl’). Example: We’ll watch a film together if you come to my house. (Adverbial clause of condition).

What does the Od refer to? Realisations of the Od.

The Direct Object (Od) typically refers to the person or thing directly affected by the action of a transitive verb (the patient or undergoer). Realisations include:

• Noun Phrase (NP): She bought a new car.
• Pronoun: She saw him.
• Finite Clause (That-clause, Wh-clause): I know that he is right. I wonder what happened.
• Non-finite Clause (Infinitive, -ing): He wants to leave. She enjoys swimming.
• Nominal Relative Clause: I’ll eat whatever you cook.
• Dummy ‘it’ (anticipatory object): I find it strange that she is not at home now.

The Od typically becomes the subject in a passive clause (e.g., A new car was bought by her).

What does the Oi identify?

The Indirect Object (Oi) typically identifies the recipient or beneficiary of the action, the entity ‘to whom’ or ‘for whom’ the action is performed. It usually requires a direct object to be present and is most typically an animate being.

Realisations of the Indirect object. Give one example of each.

Realisations include:

• Noun Phrase (NP): Penny told her parents the truth.
• Pronoun: She gave him the book.
• Wh-clause (Nominal Relative Clause): They gave whoever asked a free ticket.

Prepositional object: define and give examples.

The Prepositional Object (Oprep) is the NP (or equivalent) that follows a preposition when that preposition is required by the preceding verb (forming a prepositional verb). The verb + preposition function as a unit. Example: You can count on Pam to help make dinner. (Verb: count on, Oprep: Pam). Unlike complements of free prepositions, the Oprep can sometimes become the subject of a passive clause, stranding the preposition: Pam can be counted on to help make dinner.

Cs: what does the Cs refer to? What type of verb does it follow?

The Subject Complement (Cs) refers back to the subject, providing more information about it by identifying it or describing its attributes. It follows a copular (linking) verb, most commonly be, but also others like seem, become, appear, feel, look, sound, taste, remain. Example: Your sister is very pretty. (‘very pretty’ describes ‘Your sister’).

Realisations of the Cs.

The Cs can be realized by:

• Adjective Phrase (AdjP): She seems very happy.
• Noun Phrase (NP): He became a doctor.
• Pronoun: It is I. (Formal) / It’s me. (Informal)
• Prepositional Phrase (PP) (circumstantial): The keys are on the table.
• Adverb Phrase (AdvP) (circumstantial): The meeting is over.
• Finite Clause (That-clause, Wh-clause): The problem is that we have no money. The question is who will lead.
• Non-finite Clause (Infinitive, -ing): His plan is to travel. Her hobby is painting.

Can the Cs become the subject of a passive sentence?

No, the Subject Complement cannot become the subject of a passive sentence because copular verbs generally do not passivize.

What does the Co allude to?

The Object Complement (Co) alludes to (refers to, describes, or identifies) the Direct Object (Od) of the sentence. It follows the Od and is required by certain transitive verbs (complex transitive verbs like consider, make, find, call, name, elect, appoint).

Realisations of the Co.

The Co can be realized by:

• Adjective Phrase (AdjP): They painted the door green. I find this book very interesting.
• Noun Phrase (NP): They elected her president. We consider him a genius.
• Pronoun: She calls her dog that. (Less common)
• Prepositional Phrase (PP): I’d rather have it on top.
• Finite Clause (That-clause): I consider it vital that you attend. (With anticipatory ‘it’ as Od)
• Non-finite Clause (Infinitive, -ing, -ed): We saw him leave. I caught them stealing. I want this finished by noon.

When do we need a locative complement?

A Locative Complement (Cloc) is required by a small set of transitive verbs, notably put and place, and sometimes others like keep, set, lay. These verbs require specification of where the direct object is located or moved to; without the locative element, the clause is incomplete. Example: *He put the book. (Incomplete) -> He put the book on the shelf.

Read the section on the locative and goal complement and see what verbs require them. Give examples.

Verbs typically requiring a locative or goal complement include:

• Put: Put the handkerchiefs in the drawer.
• Place: Place the dish in the microwave.
• Set: Set the vase on the table.
• Lay: She laid the baby in the crib.
• Keep: Keep your valuables in the safe.

Difference between Objects, Complements, and Adjuncts?

• Objects (Od, Oi, Oprep): Typically represent participants (often NPs) directly or indirectly involved in the action, required by transitive, ditransitive, or prepositional verbs. Can often become subject in passive clauses.
• Complements (Cs, Co, Cloc): Required by certain verbs (copular, complex transitive, verbs like ‘put’) to complete the predication. They provide information about the Subject or Object, or specify location. They cannot usually become passive subjects (except sometimes Oprep).
• Adjuncts: Provide additional, optional information about the circumstances (time, place, manner, reason, etc.) of the event or state. They are not required by the verb for grammatical completeness and are often mobile within the clause.

Types of complements.

The main types are: Subject Complement (Cs), Object Complement (Co), and Locative/Goal Complement (Cloc).

What kind of information does the Cs provide?

The Subject Complement (Cs) provides information about the subject, either by assigning it an attribute/property (e.g., She is clever) or by stating its identity (e.g., She is the manager).

Is the Co obligatory?

Yes, the Object Complement (Co) is an obligatory constituent required by complex transitive verbs to complete their meaning.

Give examples of Co that express: identity, circumstance, attribute.

• Identity: They appointed John president of the association. (John = president)
• Attribute: Drugs make people addicts. (Assigns attribute ‘addicts’ to ‘people’). I consider him foolish.
• Circumstance (Result/State): He hammered the metal flat. (Describes the resulting state of the object).

Realisations of the Co. Think of examples.

• AdjP: He painted the fence white.
• NP: They named their daughter Hope.
• Finite Clause: I find it amazing that he succeeded.
• PrepP: She considers him out of his mind.
• Non-finite Clause: I saw her crossing the street. He wants the report finished.

Locative complement: definition.

A locative complement is a type of complement, typically realized by a PP or AdvP, that specifies location or direction and is obligatorily required by certain verbs (like put, place, set).

Locative complement: possible realisations. Give examples.

Locative complements (Cloc) are typically realized by:

• Prepositional Phrase (PP): Put the keys on the hook. She lives in London. (Note: ‘live’ sometimes takes an obligatory locative).
• Adverb Phrase (AdvP) of place: Put it there. He stayed indoors.
• Noun Phrase (NP) of place/time (less common as complement): He stayed home.

Adjuncts prototypically convey what type of meanings?

Adjuncts prototypically convey circumstantial meanings related to the event or state, such as:

• Time: when? how long? how often? (e.g., yesterday, for two hours, often)
• Place: where? (e.g., here, in the garden)
• Manner: how? (e.g., carefully, with enthusiasm)
• Reason/Cause: why? (e.g., because he was tired)
• Purpose: what for? (e.g., to buy milk)
• Condition: under what circumstances? (e.g., if it rains)
• Concession: despite what? (e.g., although it was late)

(Stance and Connective adjuncts convey different types of meaning – speaker attitude and logical connection).

Difference between Adjuncts and Complements (general sense).

The key difference lies in grammatical necessity. Complements (Objects, Cs, Co, Cloc) are generally required by the verb to form a grammatically complete and meaningful predication. Adjuncts are typically optional; they add extra information but are not essential for the grammaticality of the core clause structure.

How do we find out if a PP is an Oprep?

A Prepositional Phrase (PP) is likely functioning as a Prepositional Object (Oprep) rather than an Adjunct or Complement if:

1. The preposition is specifically selected or required by the verb (e.g., rely on, listen to, approve of).
2. The NP within the PP can sometimes become the subject of a passive sentence, stranding the preposition (e.g., This problem needs to be dealt with.). Adjunct PPs usually cannot do this.
3. It cannot typically be replaced by a single adverb like ‘here’, ‘there’, ‘then’ (unlike many adjunct PPs of place/time).
4. It cannot usually be moved as freely within the sentence as adjuncts can.

List the three main types of adjuncts and give examples.

1. Circumstantial Adjuncts: Provide information about the circumstances of the event (time, place, manner, etc.). Example: It rained in the afternoon. She spoke softly.
2. Stance Adjuncts (Disjuncts): Express the speaker’s attitude or viewpoint towards the content of the clause. Example: Fortunately, no one was hurt. Perhaps he will come.
3. Connective Adjuncts (Conjuncts): Link the clause logically to preceding text. Example: He didn’t study. Therefore, he failed the exam. Furthermore, the weather was bad.