Core Philosophical Problems: Ontology, Knowledge & Being
Basic Problems of Philosophy
The fundamental problems of philosophy transcend time and space, representing generic issues common to all humankind. What varies is how these problems are addressed.
Ontological Problem
The ontological problem is the most fundamental, concerning the nature of being itself. It asks: what is it for something to exist? The main answers propose that this being is either a subject or a superior material.
The Problem of Being in Ancient Greek Philosophy
This problem arises from contemplating the marvelous order prevailing in the universe. The Milesians observed that no day is like another, nor is one night equal to the next. This is because all things originate from the same substance, which they named Arche (Principle or root), remaining unchanged throughout the transformations. However, the specific substance differs among them:
- For Thales – it was water.
- For Anaximenes – it was air.
- For Anaximander – it was the Apeiron (the boundless).
Similarly, the Pythagoreans arose, believing:
- For Pythagoras – it was number.
- For Heraclitus – it was fire.
- For Parmenides – it was Being (Ser).
- For Empedocles – it was Earth, Air, Fire, and Water.
- For Anaxagoras – it was the Nous (seeds, sprouts).
- For Democritus – it was the Atom.
- For Protagoras – it was continuous change.
Platonic Theory of Ideas
According to Plato, there are two worlds: the intelligible world (the realm of true reality) and the sensible world (merely a shadow of the former).
Aristotelian Theory of Act and Potency
No entity possesses complete perfection or quality from the outset. Instead, it has the potential to acquire it. The actual being is that which has already realized that potential.
The Problem of Being (Aquinas)
Aquinas adopted Aristotle’s theory of being and adapted it to Christian dogmas. He used the theory of act and potency to demonstrate the possibility of creation.
In modern philosophy, unlike the realistic tendencies of the past, there is a tendency to align with reality. This trend begins with René Descartes.
Problem | Subject | Discipline |
Ontological | Being in general | Metaphysics |
Epistemological | Knowledge | IN GENERAL – Gnoseology SCIENTIFIC – Epistemology |
Axiological | IN GENERAL – Value OTHER | Axiology Logical truth. Moral goodness. Aesthetic beauty. |
Knowledge Problem
Two psychological positions have developed regarding the problem of knowledge: the rationalist and the empiricist. The empiricist view holds that the mind of a newborn is like a blank slate, and knowledge must be acquired through experience. The rationalist, by contrast, maintains that if normative truths cannot be deduced from experience, then they must pre-exist in our minds, implying an innate character.
Origin of Knowledge: Rationalism and Empiricism
1. Empiricism
Unlike rationalism, which posits reason as the source of knowledge, empiricism identifies experience as the primary and best source of our knowledge. This involves a critique of nativism, i.e., the denial that there are “ideas” or mental contents not derived from experience. At birth, the mind is a “tabula rasa” (blank slate) upon which nothing is yet imprinted. All contents are thus dependent on experience. For Hume, as discussed below, experience is constituted by a set of impressions whose cause is unknown and, strictly speaking, not to be identified with “the world” or “things.”
2. Rationalism
Like empiricism, rationalism takes the failure of ancient and medieval philosophy as its starting point for philosophical analysis of consciousness. Whereas ancient philosophy referenced the world and medieval philosophy referenced God, modern philosophy emphasizes the subject as the starting point of philosophical reflection. Thus, just as Descartes, having discovered “I think, therefore I am,” studied the content of thought, the empiricists begin their research by analyzing the contents of consciousness.