Crisis and Instability of the Spanish Restoration (1898-1917)
Crisis and Instability of the Spanish Restoration
The Crisis of 1898 and Colonial Issues
The first Cuban War lasted ten years (1868-1878), starting with the Cry of Yara. Led by the native bourgeoisie and a guerrilla force of mestizos and freed black slaves (Maximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo), this “Long War” ended with the Peace of Zanjón. A year later, the brief “Little War” erupted but was swiftly suppressed by Spain. In 1892, José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party, and in 1895, the final war began. The Spanish government, under Cánovas del Castillo, sent troops but couldn’t quell the insurrection. Cánovas was assassinated in 1897, and the Liberal Party, led by Práxedes Mateo Sagasta, returned to power, promising Cubans political autonomy, equal rights, and free trade—but it was too late.
Simultaneously, an uprising occurred in the Philippines (1896-1897), where the Spanish presence was weaker. The Filipino revolt was brutally repressed, and its leader, José Rizal, was executed. In 1898, using the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor as a pretext, the United States declared war on Spain. The ensuing war was short. The US Navy, far more modern than Spain’s, defeated the Spanish fleet in the Philippines (Battle of Cavite) and Cuba (Battle of Santiago de Cuba). In December 1898, the Treaty of Paris was signed, and Spain lost its remaining colonies: Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, which came under US control. This defeat plunged Spanish society into disappointment and frustration, marking Spain’s decline as a global power.
The Moroccan Problem
Between 1885 and 1912, European powers carved up Africa. Spain, aiming to defend Ceuta and Melilla and compensate for the 1898 disaster, participated in this division. The Algeciras Conference (1906) established a Spanish protectorate in Morocco. However, in 1909, Rif tribesmen attacked workers constructing a railway. Prime Minister Antonio Maura increased garrisons with reservists, sparking a popular uprising in Barcelona known as the “Tragic Week.” In 1912, France and Spain agreed on the border between their Moroccan protectorates. The Sultan granted mining rights, but profits were meager. After World War I, the Spanish army sought greater control in Morocco. In 1921, General Manuel Fernández Silvestre advanced into the Rif but was ambushed by Abd el-Krim’s forces, suffering heavy casualties. The press and opposition blamed the government and army, widening the rift between military and politicians. A parliamentary inquiry, the “Expediente Picasso,” was launched to investigate, opposed by the army and King Alfonso XIII. Shortly before the report’s release, Miguel Primo de Rivera staged a coup.
Regenerationism and Revisionism
The loss of the colonies triggered a moral crisis. After Cánovas’s death, Conservatives rallied around Antonio Maura, who attempted reforms “from above” to combat corruption, but these failed. Key initiatives included the National Insurance Institute (social security, pensions), Sunday rest, a new electoral law (compulsory voting), and promoting the shipping industry. However, the repression of the Tragic Week discredited him, and the King dismissed him, appointing the Liberals under José Canalejas.
The Tragic Week
The deployment of Catalan reservists to Melilla in 1909 provoked unrest in Barcelona, escalating into a week-long revolt involving anarchists, socialists, and radicals. Barricades were erected, clashes with authorities ensued, and anti-clerical sentiment led to attacks on religious buildings. The government declared a state of war and deployed the army. Repression was harsh, with hundreds arrested and five executed, including Francisco Ferrer Guardia, an anarchist educator accused of being the ideological instigator. Despite protests, Maura ordered his execution, leading to his dismissal.
Canalejas implemented reforms: the “Padlock Law” (restricting religious orders), military service reform, and the Associations Act (allowing regional assemblies). Catalonia formed the Commonwealth, which lasted until Primo de Rivera abolished it in 1924. Canalejas also attempted to replace consumption tax with income tax and improve working conditions. However, he was assassinated in 1912, and the Liberal Party fragmented.
The Crisis of 1917
After 1898, Spain remained neutral in World War I. This neutrality fueled economic growth, as Spain became a supplier to warring nations. However, this growth was speculative, and living standards for the masses declined due to rising prices and stagnant wages. In 1917, a crisis erupted, challenging the Restoration system.
The Military Crisis
The army, due to merit-based promotions in Morocco, had an excess of officers. Inflation eroded low salaries, leading to the formation of Juntas (military unions) demanding higher pay and opposing merit-based promotions. In June 1917, they issued a manifesto criticizing the government and calling for political renewal.
The Political Crisis
The government closed parliament and suspended the constitution. In response, the Catalan Assembly in Barcelona demanded a provisional government and constituent Cortes to restructure the political system. Similar calls from other regions were suppressed.
The Social Crisis
Rising prices and corporate profiteering fueled working-class discontent. In August 1917, following a railway strike in Valencia, the UGT and PSOE called a general strike. The strike’s impact was uneven, with violent incidents in Madrid, the Basque Country, and Asturias. The government declared martial law and deployed the army. Strikers were imprisoned, court-martialed, and sentenced. The government addressed the military’s demands, and the Catalan Assembly’s efforts faltered due to internal divisions. The PSOE and UGT were weakened, leaving the anarchists at the forefront of future labor unrest.