Crisis and Transformation: Spain and Spanish America (1808-1833)
Crisis of the Old Regime (1808-1833)
Policy
Spanish America severed its ties of dependence with Spain.
Economy
Experienced a crisis due to the effects of the Napoleonic Wars.
Social Structure
The stratified social structure was altered by changes in the economy and politics.
Culture
Influenced by political events.
War and Revolution
War of Independence (1808-1814)
The execution of Louis XVI led to Spain joining the First Coalition against France. In 1795, the Reign of Terror ended, giving way to a more moderate phase. The backdrop to the war included:
- Spain allying with France against Britain through the Treaties of San Ildefonso (1796 and 1800).
- The Franco-Spanish fleet being defeated at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).
- Godoy and Napoleon signing the Treaty of Fontainebleau in 1807.
- Formation of a group opposed to Godoy, leading to the Conspiracy of El Escorial.
- The Mutiny of Aranjuez in March 1808, forcing Charles IV to dismiss Godoy and install his son, Ferdinand VII.
- Charles IV and Ferdinand VII being taken to Bayonne, where they abdicated the Spanish throne to Napoleon, who then gave it to his brother, Joseph Bonaparte (Joseph I).
The War of Independence began on May 2, 1808. Its development unfolded in several phases:
- Spain defeated France at the Battle of Bailén (July 1808).
- Napoleon entered Spain and gained control of nearly the entire peninsula.
- Spanish and British troops defeated France at Arapiles, Vitoria, and San Marcial, forcing French withdrawal in 1814.
The Liberal Revolution: The Constitution of 1812
Juntas were formed that rejected Napoleonic rule. The Central Junta governed in the absence of the Spanish monarchs, parallel to and in opposition to Joseph Bonaparte. On March 19, 1812, the Cortes of Cádiz enacted the first Spanish constitution, which included the abolition of noble privileges and the recognition of freedoms.
Rollback of Liberalism: Ferdinand VII
The Absolutist Six Years (1814-1820)
Ferdinand VII returned to Spain in 1814. A group devoted to absolutism presented the king with the Manifesto of the Persians. The king subsequently declared the Constitution of 1812 and the laws of the Cortes of Cádiz null and void.
The Liberal Triennium (1820-1823)
Public finances and persecution led to pronouncements. In 1820, officer Rafael del Riego led a successful uprising that restored liberalism. However, several difficulties arose:
- Economic crisis
- Division between liberals and progressives
- Spanish American independence
Ferdinand VII appealed to the Holy Alliance, which sent the Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis.
Return to Absolutism (1823-1833)
Ferdinand VII abolished all reforms of the Liberal Triennium, Riego was executed, and the king returned to absolute rule. A succession problem emerged when Ferdinand VII issued the Pragmatic Sanction, repealing the Salic Law. Upon the birth of Isabella, daughter of Ferdinand VII, she was recognized as heir to the throne. This led to two factions:
- Liberals supporting Isabella
- Absolutists supporting Don Carlos María Isidro
This division caused the Carlist Wars during Isabella II’s reign.
Spanish American Independence
Causes
- Spread of ideas from the French and American Revolutions
- Discontent of the native bourgeoisie
- Support from Britain and the USA
- The Monroe Doctrine (“America for Americans”)
- International weakness of Spain, focused on the Peninsular War
Key Figures
- Francisco de Miranda, who challenged Spanish rule in 1805
- Miguel Hidalgo, who led a large uprising of Indigenous people and mestizos in 1810
- Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín, prominent in the decisive phase of emancipation in 1815
Events
Between 1817 and 1824, key victories included:
- General San Martín at Chacabuco (Chile, 1817)
- General Bolívar at Carabobo (Venezuela, 1821)
- Antonio José de Sucre at Ayacucho (Peru, 1824)
These victories secured the independence of much of Spanish America.
Consequences
- Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until 1898.
- The native bourgeoisie gained political power and independence.
- Former viceroyalties became new republics.
- Spanish domination was replaced by British and American influence.
Economy
Economic development was hindered by:
- Wars against France and Britain
- Decline in agricultural production
- Crisis in traditional industry
- Loss of trade due to the end of Spanish control
Culture
Late 18th and early 19th-century culture was divided into two main currents:
- Writers with a popular style
- Enlightenment and Francophile writers
Notable figures included composers Juan Crisóstomo de Arriaga (“The Happy Slaves”) and Fernando Sor.
Art
Neoclassicism
Neoclassical architecture was introduced to Spain by King Charles III (e.g., Puerta de Alcalá by Francisco Sabatini). Juan de Villanueva was a prominent Spanish architect. Neoclassical sculpture was characterized by the use of marble and bronze. José Álvarez Cubero (“The Defense of Zaragoza”) was a notable sculptor. Vicente López (portraits, including Goya, The Ugarte Family, and Charles IV and His Family Visiting the University of Valencia) and José de Madrazo (The Death of Viriathus) were prominent painters.
Goya
Goya’s work included:
- Cartoons for tapestries
- Portraits
- Religious paintings
- Historical paintings
- Black Paintings
- Prints (Caprichos, The Disasters of War, Disparates, Tauromaquia)