Crisis of 1808: Spain’s War of Independence & Revolution
The Crisis of 1808: War of Independence and Political Revolution
The crisis of 1808 encompasses a series of events that led to the exile of the Bourbons, the division of Spain, the War of Independence, and the first liberal political revolution in Spanish history, represented by the Cortes of Cadiz.
Causes
- Economic Hardship: The old regime faced increasing economic difficulties. The rising bourgeoisie possessed wealth but lacked access to land ownership and rights.
- External Conflicts: Ongoing wars stemming from the French Revolution, first against revolutionary France and later alongside it, drained resources and led to tax increases, fueling public discontent. American trade declined, further impacting revenue.
- Treaty of Fontainebleau (1807): King Charles IV and his prime minister, Godoy, signed a treaty with Napoleon allowing French troops passage through Spain to attack Portugal. This foreign presence on Spanish soil raised concerns.
- Declining Prestige of the Monarchy: The Queen’s personal life and her relationship with Godoy, who rapidly ascended to prime minister, fueled public disapproval. Godoy’s dictatorial governance aimed at suppressing liberalism, further alienating liberal factions.
- Internal Plots: Ferdinand, son of Charles IV, orchestrated plots against both Godoy and his father.
Development
In March 1808, the Aranjuez uprising erupted, with the populace protesting against Godoy. Charles IV abdicated in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. Napoleon summoned the royal family to France. On May 2, 1808, the people of Madrid rebelled against the French troops as the last members of the royal family departed, creating a power vacuum.
The situation worsened on May 5 with the Bayonne abdications. Ferdinand VII abdicated in favor of his father, Charles IV, who then abdicated in favor of Napoleon. Napoleon appointed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain. A significant portion of the Spanish population refused to accept this and fought for the return of Ferdinand VII.
Implications
A. The War of Independence (1808-1814)
The war was both a civil and international conflict. Spain divided into two factions: the patriots, supporting Ferdinand VII with English and Portuguese backing, and the Francophiles, supporting Joseph Bonaparte with French support.
Stages of the War:
- 1808: Initial patriot victories (e.g., Bailén) prompted Napoleon to personally intervene with his forces, defeating the patriot army.
- 1809-1812: French forces controlled most of Spain. Patriots resorted to guerilla warfare. Goya documented the war through his paintings.
- 1812-1814: Napoleon’s invasion of Russia weakened his forces in Spain. British forces, led by General Wellington, intervened from Portugal. Wellington’s victory over Napoleon at Waterloo ended the war. The Treaty of Valençay (1813) recognized Ferdinand VII as King of Spain.
B. The Political Revolution
The power vacuum created by the absent king led to political changes on both sides.
French Side: Joseph Bonaparte enacted the Statute of Bayonne (1808), establishing an authoritarian monarchy with a limited bicameral legislature and socio-economic reforms.
Patriot Side: Local and regional juntas (councils) formed and coordinated, eventually creating the Supreme Central Junta, which governed in the name of Ferdinand VII. The Junta convened the Cortes of Cadiz, which implemented liberal reforms, including:
- The Constitution of 1812: Established national sovereignty, limited the king’s power, and proclaimed equality before the law.
- Socioeconomic Decrees: Abolished privileges of the nobility and clergy, ended manorial rights, and promoted free markets and individual private property.
Ferdinand VII’s return in 1814 and the re-imposition of absolutism temporarily reversed these reforms. However, liberal ideas resurfaced during the regency of Maria Cristina after Ferdinand’s death.