Crisis of the Old Regime & Liberal Revolution in Spain (1808-1820)
The Crisis of the Old Regime and the Liberal Revolution (1808-1820)
The Crisis of the Monarchy and the War of Independence
The Crisis of the Monarchy of Charles IV
The monarchy of Charles IV was discredited due to the government crisis and the immense power accumulated by his favorite, Manuel Godoy. This sparked strong opposition and a desire for change in governance. Godoy’s economic policies, including disentailment, antagonized the Church. Spain’s submission to France led to the defeat at Trafalgar and the Treaty of Fontainebleau, allowing French troops to enter Spain under the guise of occupying Portugal.
The “Fernandino” party, involving the king’s son Ferdinand, conspired against Charles IV. The Escorial affair exposed the monarchy’s weakness. The Aranjuez riot forced Godoy’s resignation and Charles IV’s abdication in favor of Ferdinand.
The Uprising Against the French
On May 2, 1808, as the royal family prepared to leave, the people of Madrid rose against the French. The French army brutally suppressed the uprising, resulting in hundreds of deaths. Napoleon forced Charles IV and Ferdinand VII to renounce the throne in favor of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte (Joseph I of Spain). The Bayonne abdications revealed France’s intentions. The uprisings surprised the French army, and cities like Girona, Zaragoza, and Valencia resisted fiercely.
The Statute of Bayonne and the French Government
The French attempted to establish a political system based on a blend of liberalism and authoritarianism, outlined in the Statute of Bayonne. While acknowledging Spain’s Catholic tradition, it introduced liberal reforms. Joseph I, though intelligent and educated, lacked the support and autonomy of his brother Napoleon.
The Development of the War
The Spanish occupation proved difficult for the French. The Spanish victory at Bailén forced Joseph I to flee Madrid. A British army under Wellesley landed in Portugal to aid the Spanish and Portuguese. Napoleon’s victory at Ocaña left only Cadiz free. The Peninsular War coincided with Napoleon’s Russian campaign, weakening French forces in Spain. Anglo-Spanish forces capitalized on this, winning battles at Ciudad Rodrigo and Los Arapiles, forcing Joseph I to abandon Madrid. The French defeat at Vitoria and San Marcial led to their expulsion from Spain. Napoleon’s defeat allowed Ferdinand to regain the throne with the Treaty of Valençay, ending the War of Independence.
Patriots, Liberals, and Francophiles
The political landscape saw divisions between Francophiles and patriots, and between liberals and absolutists. Three centers of action emerged:
- The Juntas: Local juntas formed provincial and central boards, capturing popular resistance. Their representatives included former ministers like Jovellanos and Florida Blanca.
- The Guerrilla: Popular resistance against the invader, often spontaneous and later supported by the Central Junta. Its social base was primarily peasants, though some devolved into banditry.
- The Call for Cortes: Advocates for reform called for Cortes chosen by universal male suffrage, representing the nation by estates. This led to the Cortes of Cadiz.
Two main attitudes emerged towards the French: the patriotas, defenders of the Bourbon monarchy (some seeking liberal reforms, others supporting absolutism), and the afrancesados, a heterogeneous group supporting Joseph I or seeking to maintain their social status.
The Cortes of Cadiz
Composition and Operation of the Cortes
The Central Junta called for general and special Cortes. Difficulties arose in choosing representatives, including American deputies. Three sensibilities emerged: those supporting absolutism, those wanting a system based on intermediate sovereignty, and the liberals, who advocated national sovereignty and the principles of the French Revolution. The liberals prevailed due to the absence of many deputies and their replacement by those from Cadiz, a liberal city.
Liberal clergy and officials saw the Cortes as an opportunity for reform. Two main parties emerged: the absolutists and the liberals. Once the French were expelled, the Cortes moved to Madrid.
The Legislative Work of the Cortes
The Cortes enacted radical changes:
- Sovereignty resided in the nation, assumed by the Cortes.
- Equality before the law, ending stratified society. Equality between Spanish and Americans fueled independence movements in America.
- Reforms included freedom of the press, abolition of torture, confiscation of Church property, and free trade.
The Constitution of 1812
After intense debate, the Constitution of 1812 (“La Pepa”) was passed. Its principles included:
- National sovereignty.
- Equality before the law and individual freedoms.
- Division of powers (legislative, executive, judicial).
- Catholicism as the sole religion.
- Universal male suffrage.
- Creation of a National Militia.
- Moderate monarchy with royal veto power.
- Economic freedom.
The constitution was barely applied and later abolished by Ferdinand VII.
The Six Years of Absolutism
The Restoration of Absolutism
Upon returning, Ferdinand VII rejected the Cadiz reforms. He abolished them in 1814 with the Manifesto of the Persians, receiving widespread support. Liberals faced imprisonment or death, leading to exile in France and Britain.
The Disastrous Government of Ferdinand VII
Spain faced American independence movements and continued instability. Ferdinand VII’s government was marked by cronyism and bankruptcy. The immense debt from the war forced the adoption of some liberal measures. Minister Martín Garay’s attempt at financial reform failed due to opposition from privileged groups.
Pronouncements and Conspiracies
Despite repression, liberals continued their activities, seeking military support. On January 1, 1820, an army revolt led by Rafael del Riego began in Seville and spread throughout Andalusia. Ferdinand VII was forced to swear allegiance to the Constitution of 1812, beginning the Liberal Triennium.