Critical Perspectives on Shakespeare: Hamlet & Macbeth
Unit 1: Critical Approaches to Shakespeare
1. Neoclassical Criticism (17th Century)
Key Critics
- Ben Jonson, John Dryden, Thomas Rymer
Key Ideas
- Emphasis on Aristotelian unities (time, action, place).
- Focus on decorum, order, and moral instruction.
- Shakespeare criticized for violating classical dramatic rules.
Jonson
Admired Shakespeare’s talent but criticized his disregard for dramatic structure. Defined him as a poet of “Nature” but careless in style.
Dryden
Praised Shakespeare’s “images of nature” but saw his rhetoric as unrefined. Stressed that Shakespeare’s genius was innate rather than based on classical education.
Rymer
Attacked Shakespeare for character inconsistencies (Othello), lack of noble thought, and improper blending of comic and tragic elements.
2. Editorial Criticism (18th Century)
Major Editors
- Nicholas Rowe, Alexander Pope, Lewis Theobald, Samuel Johnson, Edmund Malone
Key Contributions
- Organized and corrected Shakespeare’s texts.
- Introduced act and scene divisions.
- Attempted to restore Shakespeare’s original wording.
Johnson
- Praised Shakespeare’s realism and understanding of human nature.
- Criticized his lack of moral purpose and excessive wordplay.
- Defended Shakespeare’s blending of tragedy and comedy, arguing that variety enhances realism.
3. Romantic Criticism (Early 19th Century)
Key Critics
- A.W. Schlegel, William Hazlitt, Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Key Ideas
- Focus on character depth and psychological complexity.
- Plays seen as organic rather than bound by rigid classical rules.
- Shakespeare’s genius tied to his ability to reflect nature and human emotions.
Coleridge
- Hamlet’s inaction stems from an overactive intellect, making him incapable of decisive action.
- Distinguished between “mechanic form” (external rules) and “organic form” (internal unity).
Schlegel
- Argued Shakespeare’s plays had an intrinsic unity beyond classical structure.
4. Victorian Criticism (Late 19th Century)
Key Critics
- Edward Dowden, A.C. Bradley
Key Ideas
- Emphasis on moral struggle and character development.
- Shakespearean tragedy defined as the downfall of a hero due to internal flaws.
Bradley
- Defined Hamlet, Macbeth, Othello, and King Lear as Shakespeare’s four greatest tragedies.
- Focused on psychological depth, seeing Hamlet’s delay as stemming from melancholy rather than indecision.
Unit 2: The Early 20th Century and Beyond
1. Stylistic and Imagery Analysis
Key Critics
- G. Wilson Knight, Caroline Spurgeon, Wolfgang Clemen
Key Ideas
- Analyzed Shakespeare’s use of imagery, symbolism, and poetic structure.
- Studied how motifs and atmosphere shape meaning.
Knight
- Defined Macbeth as a play dominated by death and darkness.
- Saw Hamlet as containing an overarching mood of disease and corruption.
Spurgeon
- Classified Shakespeare’s imagery to reveal personal themes.
- Analyzed recurring images (e.g., nature, disease, decay).
Clemen
- Connected imagery with dramatic elements like character, plot, and theme.
- Saw imagery as a tool for foreshadowing and emotional depth.
2. Theatrical Criticism
Key Critics
- Harley Granville-Barker, Muriel C. Bradbrook
Key Ideas
- Focused on Shakespeare’s plays in performance rather than just text.
- Examined how staging, costuming, and Elizabethan theater practices shaped meaning.
Granville-Barker
- Studied Shakespeare’s verse as spoken dialogue, emphasizing natural speech rhythms.
- Highlighted the importance of physical space and audience engagement.
Bradbrook
- Analyzed conventions like the absence of actresses in Elizabethan theater and their impact on gender representation.
3. New Historicism and Cultural Materialism (Late 20th Cent)
Key Figures
- Stephen Greenblatt, Jonathan Dollimore
Key Ideas
- Rejected humanist essentialism, emphasizing historical and political context.
- Shakespeare’s plays analyzed as reflections of power struggles and cultural ideologies.
- Focused on themes of subversion and authority.
Greenblatt
- Coined the term “New Historicism” and explored how Elizabethan anxieties shaped Shakespeare’s works.
- Argued that Hamlet reflected political unrest and questions of legitimacy.
Dollimore
- Used a Marxist lens (Cultural Materialism), interpreting Macbeth and King Lear as critiques of state power and ideology.
- Argued that Shakespeare exposes the instability of authority and social hierarchies.
Unit 3: The Shakespearean Stage – Hamlet
1. Historical and Literary Context
- Written around 1601, influenced by political and social turmoil.
- Allusions to Julius Caesar’s assassination and Essex’s rebellion.
- Influence of Saxo Grammaticus’s Amleth and Belleforest’s Histoires Tragiques.
- Possible connection to Ur-Hamlet (lost play, possibly by Thomas Kyd).
2. Textual History
- Q1 (1603): “Bad” quarto, likely a pirated version.
- Q2 (1604-05): More complete, possibly based on Shakespeare’s manuscript.
- First Folio (1623): Shorter than Q2, edited for performance.
3. Critical Interpretations of Hamlet
- Johnson: Hamlet as passive, his madness unnecessary.
- Coleridge: Hamlet’s delay caused by overthinking.
- Bradley: Hamlet’s inaction due to melancholy, not moral scruples.
- Showalter: Ophelia’s madness as a reflection of gender roles.
- Greenblatt: Hamlet as a reflection of Elizabethan political anxieties.
- T.S. Eliot: Criticized Hamlet as an “artistic failure” due to lack of objective correlative.
- Freud: Psychoanalytic reading; Hamlet’s hesitation linked to Oedipal complex.
4. Thematic and Structural Analysis
Themes
- Revenge and justice
- Madness (real vs. feigned)
- Corruption
- Existentialism
- Political intrigue
- Appearance vs. reality
- Fate vs. free will
Structure
- Use of soliloquies to reveal Hamlet’s inner turmoil.
- Metatheatrical elements (The Mousetrap).
- Doubling of characters (Hamlet/Laertes, Claudius/Old Hamlet).
5. Characterization
Hamlet
Introspective, philosophical, and prone to overthinking. Struggles with action vs. inaction. Melancholic, obsessed with death and corruption. Feigns madness as a survival strategy. His soliloquies reveal existential doubt. Coleridge argues his paralysis comes from overthinking, while Bradley attributes it to deep melancholy. T.S. Eliot criticizes Hamlet’s character as incoherent and the play as an “artistic failure.”
Claudius
A politically shrewd and competent ruler, but morally corrupt. Feels guilt yet clings to power. Wilson Knight controversially sees him as a stabilizing force, while Hamlet is the true disruptor of Denmark.
Ophelia
Controlled by her father and brother, torn between duty and love. Her madness represents a breakdown caused by patriarchal oppression. Elaine Showalter sees her as a victim of gender constraints, while some earlier critics dismissed her as a passive figure.
Laertes
A foil to Hamlet—decisive and action-driven. His impulsive revenge contrasts with Hamlet’s introspection. A.C. Bradley highlights how Laertes acts without hesitation, unlike Hamlet.
Horatio
Hamlet’s rational and loyal friend. Survives to tell Hamlet’s story, reinforcing the theme of history as a constructed narrative.
6. Summary of Hamlet
Act 1
Ghost of King Hamlet reveals his murder by Claudius. Hamlet feigns madness to investigate.
Act 2
Polonius believes Hamlet is mad for Ophelia’s love. Hamlet plans a play to test Claudius’s guilt.
Act 3
Hamlet confirms Claudius’s guilt through the play. Hamlet kills Polonius; Claudius plots against Hamlet.
Act 4
Hamlet is sent to England; Ophelia goes mad and drowns. Laertes returns seeking revenge.
Act 5
Hamlet and Laertes duel; Gertrude drinks poison. Laertes, Claudius, and Hamlet die; Fortinbras claims the throne.
Unit 4: The Shakespearean Stage – Macbeth
1. Historical and Literary Context
- Written around 1606, reflecting political anxieties and King James I’s rule.
- Inspired by Holinshed’s Chronicles and contemporary witchcraft beliefs.
- Explores themes of ambition, fate, and the supernatural.
2. Textual History
- First Folio (1623): Only authoritative source.
- Heavily adapted over time, with various performance interpretations.
3. Critical Interpretations of Macbeth
- A.C. Bradley: Macbeth as a tragic hero, downfall due to ambition.
- Wilson Knight: Macbeth as a play of darkness and disorder.
- Alan Sinfield: Political readings, Macbeth as a commentary on power and legitimacy.
- Janet Adelman: Lady Macbeth’s influence and gender dynamics.
4. Thematic and Structural Analysis
Themes
- Ambition and power
- Fate vs. free will
- Guilt and psychological torment
- Tyranny and disorder
- Supernatural influence
- Deception and betrayal
Structure
- Five-act structure.
- Rapid pace reflecting Macbeth’s descent.
- Soliloquies revealing inner conflict.
- Role of prophecy as a driving force.
- Cyclical nature of violence.
5. Characterization
Macbeth
Begins as a noble warrior, but ambition and external pressures (witches, Lady Macbeth) lead to his downfall. Guilt manifests in hallucinations. Moves from doubt to tyranny and nihilism (“a tale told by an idiot…”). Bradley sees his descent as tragic inevitability, while Harold Bloom views Macbeth as a study of the imagination’s destructive power.
Lady Macbeth
Dominant early on, urging Macbeth to act. Suppresses her femininity for ambition. Later consumed by guilt (sleepwalking scene). Janet Adelman argues she embodies maternal power turned destructive. L. Tennenhouse examines her role in relation to state power and sovereignty.
Banquo
Honorable, serves as Macbeth’s foil. His ghost symbolizes Macbeth’s paranoia and the threat of the prophecy. Wilson Knight sees Banquo as a moral contrast, representing integrity.
Macduff
A force of justice. His grief over his family fuels his vengeance. Represents moral integrity and the restoration of order. Stephen Greenblatt explores how Macduff’s role embodies resistance to tyranny.
The Witches
Manipulate through ambiguous prophecies but never force Macbeth’s hand. Represent fate vs. free will, playing on Macbeth’s inner desires. Jonathan Dollimore interprets them through a political lens, linking them to subversion of power structures.
6. Summary of Macbeth
Act 1
Three witches predict Macbeth’s rise to power. Macbeth and Banquo receive prophecies; Lady Macbeth urges Macbeth to kill King Duncan.
Act 2
Macbeth murders Duncan and frames the guards. Macduff discovers the murder; Macbeth is crowned king.
Act 3
Banquo suspects Macbeth; Macbeth orders Banquo and Fleance’s murder. Banquo is killed, but Fleance escapes; Macbeth sees Banquo’s ghost at a banquet.
Act 4
Witches show Macbeth three apparitions; he learns Macduff is a threat. Macbeth orders the murder of Macduff’s family; Macduff vows revenge.
Act 5
Lady Macbeth sleepwalks and dies; Macbeth faces Macduff. Macduff kills Macbeth; Malcolm is crowned king.