Critique of Practical Reason and the Enlightenment: A Kantian Perspective
Critique of Practical Reason (KPV) – What Should I Do?
Ethics and Practical Reason
According to Kant, human reason has two dimensions: a speculative dimension focused on knowledge and a practical dimension focused on action and decision-making. These are distinct areas. We can know an action is wrong and still be obligated not to do it. Importantly, these are not two separate reasons but two ways reason operates.
Kant’s exploration of practical reason is found in two works: the Critique of Practical Reason (KPV) and the Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals.
While Kant concluded in the Critique of Pure Reason (KRV) that metaphysics is not a science, he argues in his practical philosophy that a metaphysics of morals, or ethics, is possible. This led some followers to believe he contradicted his earlier ideals.
Kantian Ethics
Ethics considers what humans should and shouldn’t do. Kant aimed to create a universally applicable ethic.
His ethics is based on the fact of morality. All humans distinguish between good and evil based on standards or mandates derived from two types of imperatives:
- Hypothetical Imperatives: Commands that aim to achieve a further purpose (e.g., clean your room to earn 20 euros).
- Categorical Imperatives: Commands that are independent of any further purpose (e.g., clean your room).
Previous ethical theories, which Kant termed “material ethics,” focused on achieving happiness by meeting certain standards. These were empirical, a posteriori (based on experience), and heteronomous (based on external authority). They relied on hypothetical imperatives. However, they faced issues: they lacked universality, relied on experience, and didn’t account for situations where the opposite action might be preferable.
Kant argued that material ethics, or hypothetical imperatives, are inadequate. He proposed using categorical imperatives, which directly dictate action. This marked a shift from material to formal ethics. Kant’s ethics focuses on duty, making individuals autonomous and establishing a universal, a priori ethic based on categorical imperatives. He believed this new understanding of ethics could overcome human limitations.
Categorical Imperative and Types of Actions
Kant’s categorical imperative raises the question: Do we always act in accordance with it? He identified three types of actions:
- Actions contrary to duty: Directly violating the imperative (e.g., stealing when the imperative says not to). These are immoral actions.
- Actions in accordance with duty but with a further purpose: Performing the right action but for ulterior motives (e.g., not stealing to please someone). These are correct actions but not morally motivated, as they turn a categorical imperative into a hypothetical one.
- Actions in accordance with duty “from duty”: Performing the right action solely because it is dictated by the imperative. These are both correct and moral actions, performed without expectation of reward.
The distinction lies in the intention. Kant argued that the morality of an action depends not on the action itself but on the will behind it. He emphasized the importance of good will, stating that the only thing inherently good is good intention.
Formal Ethics
Kant distinguished between the matter and form of morality. Matter is the specific action taken to achieve a particular end, while form is the intention behind the action. Kantian ethics is a formal ethic.
Kant sought to create a universal ethic based on categorical imperatives. He proposed a formal ethic that applies to everyone at all times. This involves prioritizing duty over happiness and purpose and finding a universally applicable categorical imperative. He formulated the categorical imperative in several ways:
- “Act in such a way that the maxim of your action could become a universal law.” This means acting in a way that you believe everyone should act in similar situations.
- “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of any other, always as an end and never as a means.” This emphasizes treating people as ends in themselves, not as tools to achieve your goals.
Kant advocated for the autonomy of the will, where each individual’s will determines right and wrong. He believed that one’s will should be a universal legislative will.
Practical Postulates
Kant’s ethics relies on several conditions, known as practical postulates: the existence of God (to provide a basis for moral reward), the existence of the soul, and the existence of freedom.
Conclusion
Kantian ethics doesn’t provide specific instructions for every situation. It emphasizes acting from duty, creating a universal and moral ethic. Kant’s moral principles continue to influence our understanding of ethics today.
The Enlightenment: Ideas and Authors
The Enlightenment Movement
The Enlightenment was a significant political, cultural, artistic, and philosophical movement in 18th-century Europe. It began with the Glorious Revolution in England (1688) and culminated in the French Revolution (1789). The Enlightenment placed great faith in the power of reason, earning it the name “Age of Enlightenment.” Building on the rationalist philosophy of Descartes and others, it sought to understand the world through reason. However, Enlightenment thinkers aimed to break from medieval values and religious dogma, prioritizing reason.
Enlightenment Reason
Enlightenment reason had distinct characteristics:
- Autonomous: It doesn’t rely on external authority.
- Secular: It is independent of religious influence.
- Limited: It acknowledges its own limitations.
- Universal: It is accessible to everyone.
- Analytical and Critical: It critically examines reality.
Enlightenment thinkers explored various topics, including the origins of society, the rational basis of the state, and the importance of citizen participation. They advocated for democratic ideals.
Many were deists, believing in a rational, non-religious God understood through scientific and philosophical principles. This God was detached from dogma, morals, ethics, and politics.
Enlightenment thinkers championed progress, particularly scientific and technological advancement. They believed that reason, science, and knowledge could liberate Europe from the constraints of religion and tradition. Their motto was “Dare to know!”
Enlightenment Across Europe
The Enlightenment took different forms in various countries:
- Anglo-Saxon countries: Focused on epistemology, religion, and politics, with figures like Locke, Hume, and Newton.
- France: Emphasized morality, politics, and religion, with representatives like Rousseau, Voltaire, and Diderot.
- Germany: Concentrated on knowledge and the analysis of reason, with Kant as the primary figure.
French Enlightenment: Rousseau
The Social Contract
Rousseau’s central thesis was the corruption of man by society. He believed that humans are inherently good but become corrupted by social life, which reflects scientific progress. This progress leads to social inequality and moral decay.
Rousseau described a hypothetical “state of nature” where humans lived as “noble savages” without education, society, or technological advancements. In this state, humans existed in harmony with nature, experiencing blissful ignorance. They possessed an innate aversion to suffering. (This idea was influenced by Hume.)
Rousseau aimed to regenerate society through politics, education, and culture. He believed that while a return to the state of nature was impossible, society could be improved. He proposed educational ideas that emphasized experimentation and practical morality, which influenced modern education.
From Nature to Society
Rousseau explained the transition from the state of nature to society in The Social Contract. In the state of nature, humans are free, governed by impulses, instincts, and desires. In the social state, justice replaces instincts, and duty replaces impulses. This leads to a loss of individual freedom and degeneration. Rousseau analyzed how and why human societies emerge, arguing that human weaknesses drive the shift from nature to society.
He recognized that societies inevitably involve hierarchy and the need for organization. He proposed a social contract among equals, based on the general will. This society would maximize individual freedom while preserving human goodness. The general will represents the collective will of all individuals, fostering a sense of shared responsibility for the well-being of society.
Rousseau acknowledged that even the best society cannot replicate the state of nature’s innocence. However, he introduced the concept of civil liberty, the freedom enjoyed within a society where individuals are integral parts. He advocated for democracy, believing that power should reside in the people.
German Enlightenment: Kant
What Can I Know? Critique of Pure Reason (KRV)
The Critique of Pure Reason examines the nature of knowledge. Kant addressed the impasse between rationalist and empiricist philosophies. Rationalists, like Descartes, believed that knowledge is based on innate ideas and that sensory experience is unnecessary. Kant questioned the rationalist criterion of truth if empirical data is irrelevant.
On the other hand, empiricists, like Hume, argued that all knowledge originates from sensory experience. They denied the existence of innate ideas, asserting that only what can be perceived is real. Kant recognized the problem of skepticism inherent in empiricism, as it limits knowledge to immediate perception and reduces science to mere belief.
Kant asked: Is metaphysics a science? Is philosophical knowledge about the soul, God, and the world truly valid?
Kant’s Transcendental Idealism
Kant proposed a groundbreaking theory known as transcendental idealism. He argued that humans possess innate ideas, which he called a priori forms, that are present from birth. These forms organize and structure the information received through the senses. However, sensory information is still necessary for knowledge. Knowledge requires both sensory input (matter) and the a priori forms that shape and organize it (form).
Kant’s theory synthesized elements of rationalism and empiricism. Knowledge requires both empirical data (influenced by Hume) and a priori forms that structure this data (influenced by rationalism).
Therefore, two conditions are necessary for knowledge:
- External matter: Sensory information perceived through the senses (empiricism).
- A priori forms: Innate ideas that organize and structure sensory information (rationalism).
Kant identified various a priori forms, including space, time, substance, causality, and universality.
Metaphysics and the Limits of Knowledge
Kant concluded that metaphysics cannot be considered a science because it lacks empirical data. Knowledge requires sensory experience, which is absent in metaphysics. Metaphysics may offer speculation but not genuine knowledge.
Kant’s theory implies that we can only know the “phenomenon,” the aspects of reality accessible to our senses. He acknowledged the possibility of a “noumenon,” a realm of reality beyond our sensory perception.