Cuban War of Independence and Spanish-American War: Origins, Conflicts, and Consequences
The War in Cuba: Genesis of the 1895 Insurrection
After more than 15 years of colonial life under a truce, preparations for the uprising were underway in Baire, commencing on February 24, 1895. Conspiracies against Spain had been ongoing, with some groups seeking new insurrection. Two prominent factions emerged: the pro-autonomy Constitutional Union, advocating for negotiations, reforms, and legal equality with Spain, and the Cuban Revolutionary Party (CRP), demanding complete independence.
On February 24, 1895, a new uprising began under the slogan of Baire. Martí, from New York, ordered the uprising and drafted the Montecristi Manifesto in the Dominican Republic, outlining the war’s justifications. Political reaction in Spain led to a regime change: Sagasta replaced Cánovas, focusing on the financial and military organization of the Cuban war. General Martínez Campos, a former peacekeeper, was sent with troops, but the insurrection spread, threatening Havana. Cánovas adopted a harsher policy, appointing General Weyler as Captain-General to win at any cost. Weyler pacified the eastern provinces through harsh tactics, isolating guerrillas by concentrating the rural population.
The Disaster of 1898
Cánovas’s assassination in August 1897 led to Sagasta’s liberal government, advocating a conciliatory policy and replacing Weyler. The new policy aimed to reduce military action and grant autonomy, amnesty for political prisoners in Cuba and Puerto Rico, and equal political rights (universal suffrage) through Moret’s decrees. In the Philippines, an alliance with rebels was forged in late 1897 (Biac-na-Bato peace). These measures were late and ineffective, with the first autonomous government under JM Gálvez further encouraging the independence movement.
US pressure increased after the bombing of the Maine on February 15, 1898, attributed to Spain. The US offered to buy the island, but on April 18, 1898, the US Congress issued an ultimatum, effectively a declaration of war. Spain accepted, and the US began a naval blockade. The decisive battle occurred in Santiago de Cuba, resulting in the Spanish fleet’s destruction. Santiago de Cuba surrendered on July 12, followed by Manila a month later. Washington signed the protocol for Manila’s capitulation on August 14. On December 10, Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, ceding Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the US, and selling the Marianas, Palau, and Caroline Islands to Germany in early 1899.
Political and Social Impact of the War
The war profoundly changed the consciousness of various social groups in Spain, leading to significant consequences and marking a turning point in Spanish history.
Firstly, the human cost: an estimated 120,000 deaths between 1895 and 1898, half of them Spanish soldiers, mostly due to infectious diseases. This sparked public outcry, especially from poor families unable to avoid the quinta (military draft). For the government, these deaths were a lesser evil to preserve the constitutional monarchy.
Secondly, the material losses were substantial, leading to long-term economic decline due to the loss of colonial revenues and privileged markets.