Cultural Anthropology: Evolution of Societies and Human Culture
Contribution to Cultural Anthropology
Cultural anthropology studies the evolution of human life and the life of various human groups. Culture, expressed through symbolic language, is fundamental and often subconscious. Different cultures manifest through different languages. Myths, rituals, and power structures (e.g., monogamy, polygamy) are present in every culture. Anthropology interprets these manifestations to understand their meaning. By examining these expressions, we can comprehend the cultural aspects of life and the repeated evolution of society.
Early Societies
1. Upper Paleolithic (approx. 35,000 years ago): The first egalitarian societies emerged, characterized by hunter-gatherer economies and barter systems. Leadership roles existed, and people lived in shelters and caves, leaving behind cave drawings.
2. Agricultural Societies (approx. 10,000 years ago): The Neolithic Revolution led to sedentary agriculture and livestock farming. Hunting became less important as populations accumulated and cultivated crops like corn. Surplus property led to the concept of private property and the emergence of social classes. Tribes divided, and the distribution of goods became inequitable, resulting in hierarchical societies. Conflicts over land and resources led to increasingly complex tribal structures and eventually the formation of states.
The Emergence of the State
New Features:
- Centralized power.
- Further social division: military, religious, administrative, and artisan classes.
- Clear separation of functions.
- Unequal distribution of assets.
- Development of urban life.
- Advanced cultural development.
A new social organization appeared in the Middle East around 3500 BC in Mesopotamia. Cultural anthropology studies these early settlements to understand how the human species developed socially and created various models of social life.
Chronology of Human Development
- Lower Paleolithic: 500,000 years ago (Homo heidelbergensis and Homo rhodesiensis).
- Middle Paleolithic: 150,000 years ago (Neanderthals).
- Upper Paleolithic: 40,000 years ago (Homo sapiens dominance in Africa begins around 11,000 years ago).
- Mesolithic: 11,000 years ago (Agricultural societies begin to form).
- Neolithic: Around 8,000 years ago (Development of agriculture and livestock farming).
- Metal Age: Around 4,500 years ago (Bronze Age), around 3,300 years ago (Iron Age), the first states emerge, and documented history begins.
Culture and Humanity
Humans are defined by culture. Anthropology identifies key features:
Mental culture: Beliefs and values. Humans adapt to their physical and social environment through culture. Culture is an adaptation, a result of historical processes, a factor in humanization, and a shared system of symbols. Only humans possess culture; other species do not. Subcultures and countercultures exist within larger cultural groups. Subcultures share specific characteristics, while countercultures oppose aspects of the mainstream culture. Examples include urban tribes (punks, goths, skins), groups challenging society through violence, and alternative social groups (pacifists, ecologists). These groups seek identity or express dissent.
Culture and Civilization
Culture, in a general sense, relates to civilization (from Latin civis, citizen, and civitas, city). The concept of civilization emerged in 18th-century Europe, distinguishing “civilized” societies from “wild” ones. Civilization refers to the general characteristics obtained by synthesizing different cultures, representing a distinctively human trait.
Cultural Invasions and Intercultural Relations
Cultural trends spread, but groups often aim to protect their territory, sometimes using perceived threats as justification for conflict. This is relevant to cultural disciplines.
Interculturalism (Mackarnirena)
Interculturalism emphasizes calm and equal relations between cultures. It promotes the value of diverse cultural wealth. The existence and promotion of multiple cultures are central to interculturalism.