Cultural Shifts in 19th Century Spain: From Tradition to Modernity
Cultural Transformation in Spain
The late 18th and early 19th centuries were a time of change in Spain. French revolutionary ideas crossed the Pyrenees, spreading through books and pamphlets, challenging the Old Regime. These ideas gained traction among intellectuals, while many privileged individuals and the rural population clung to traditional values. After the War of Independence, Ferdinand VII’s reign intensified this clash of ideologies and mentalities.
Spain in the Early 19th Century
Spain remained predominantly rural, with a peasant population outweighing the urban. Society was dominated by a privileged class, upholding traditional values and customs. Land ownership and noble titles were status symbols, and manual labor was disdained. Spaniards were deeply religious, passionate about bullfighting, and less inclined towards theater.
Reign of Elizabeth II: Urbanization and Progress
Economic development during Elizabeth II’s reign and urban expansion due to rural exodus shifted the focus from rural to urban life. Cities grew beyond their walls, with Madrid expanding through the Salamanca district and Barcelona through the Diagonal. Gas lighting, telephones, trams, and railways modernized daily life, standardizing customs, clothing, and entertainment.
Cafés, social gatherings, athenaeums, and casinos became meeting points for the middle class, while the upper class frequented opera houses and theaters. Bullfighting, though still popular, became regulated, with the emergence of large bullrings and celebrated bullfighters.
Religious beliefs remained significant, with processions and Holy Week festivities attracting large crowds. However, anticlericalism began to emerge, particularly among the lower classes, workers, and intellectuals. The Church remained influential, with some figures like Jesuit Antonio Vicent advocating for the Church to adapt to the new era, giving rise to early Catholic social thought.
Education and Ideological Currents
Educational achievements were limited despite constitutional declarations. In 1860, only slightly over 20,000 students were enrolled. While there was a move towards systematizing education, there was also fear of educating the masses.
The rise of the working class and socialism fueled conservative thought, exemplified by Donoso Cortés. Some liberals shifted towards conservatism, like Jaime Balmes, who advocated for common sense in his work “The Criterion.” However, significant intellectual developments came through Krausismo, introduced by Sanz del Río, who had studied Krause’s philosophy in Germany. His message of freedom, tolerance, and dialogue was embraced by disciples like Francisco Giner de los Ríos and Nicolás Salmerón.
The Press and Public Discourse
The press experienced a significant boost, particularly in areas of intellectual curiosity. Before 1835, newspapers focused on political or scientific issues, had a small format, and were column-based. Afterward, they evolved, with 13 newspapers circulating in 1850, though many were short-lived, such as “La Esperanza,” “The Cry,” and “Reform.”
The Revolutionary Six-Year Period (1868-1874)
This period saw expanded cultural thought and political awareness among the working class. After the Glorious Revolution, schools for the lower classes and workers emerged, along with new newspapers. The 1869 Constitution recognized freedom of the press. Opinion journals supporting political parties continued, but a more engaging press developed, including literary criticism, hobbies, anecdotes, humor, and advertising, along with serialized novels.
The Restoration: Cultural Regression
The Restoration brought cultural regression and censorship. In 1875, the government monitored university education and censored criticism of the monarchy and Catholic dogma. The Church regained control over education, especially primary education, while secondary education in around 50 institutes was reserved for the wealthy. However, initiatives like the Free Institution of Teaching, founded in 1876 by Francisco Giner de los Ríos, promoted free, comprehensive education based on Krausismo principles. Other initiatives included “The Catholic Workers’ Circles” and “The Ave Maria Schools,” which, despite religious foundations, employed active and innovative teaching methods for marginalized groups, including Roma children. Workers’ parties also campaigned against illiteracy, with the PSOE creating “The Houses of the People” and anarchists promoting reading through newspapers like “Land and Freedom” and schools like Ferrer Guardia’s “Modern School” in Barcelona.
Despite these efforts, illiteracy remained high, affecting nearly two-thirds of the population until 1900, when the Ministry of Education and Fine Arts was established. The press, though a minority product, gained importance, reflecting the ideological struggle between conservatives and progressives.