David Hume’s Moral Philosophy: Sentiment Over Reason
David Hume: The Precursor of Modern Philosophy
Hume, a national figure in Edinburgh, is recognized as a precursor of philosophy. We center our beliefs in his moral philosophy. Hume argues that man is often affected by images of good and evil, suggesting that there are no inherent moral distinctions. This view, based on experience, is not consistent with common sense and reason.
The Difference Between Kant and Hume
The difference between Kant and Hume lies in the foundation and source of moral actions. Hume challenges the philosophy that states moral actions are based solely on reason. His proposal emphasizes that moral judgments are based on sentiment.
Hume vs. Reason as the Foundation of Morality
Reason does not determine our moral behavior; it cannot affect behavior by itself. Instead, the passions or affections are the main sources of action. Hume does not intend to deny that reason plays an important role in morality, as expressed in the phrase, “Reason and sentiment concur in moral conclusions.” The realm of reason encompasses facts, and its function is not to value actions. Reason informs us of the causes and consequences of actions, but it is not sufficient to assess an action.
The Role of Feelings in Moral Judgments
Ultimately, what affects our behavior is the feeling we have toward an action. Moral values do not exist in the world; they arise when we are affected by actions, projecting feelings of approval or rejection. If the feeling is one of moral approval, the action is deemed good; if it is rejection, the action is considered morally wrong.
Hume’s Relationship Between Moral and Natural Beauty
Hume draws a relationship between moral and natural beauty to explain the concept of moral sentiment. He gives the example of a column: if you study a work of art through reason, you cannot see its beauty unless you are affected by it, producing an aesthetic experience. Similarly, moral goodness is perceived through feelings.
What is the Moral Sense?
As the foundation of morality is based on feeling, we must ask what the moral sentiment is. This sentiment is natural and innate. It is spontaneous, meaning it does not require rational mediation. What makes an action good or bad is the feeling of approval or disapproval. Hume asserts that without feelings, it is impossible to assess actions. Reason provides the necessary data to understand actions, but the final assessment—whether good or bad—depends on a feeling that lacks a rational aspect.
The Impartial Spectator
The moral sense is selfless; it does not depend on special interests. To evaluate an action as moral, we need not connect ourselves with the actions. We must be impartial spectators. Only then can we perceive the true moral feeling and assess actions morally.
Hume’s Stance Against Moral Relativism
Hume is opposed to all forms of moral relativism and argues for a universal ethic. The moral sentiment is universal; all human beings possess the same moral sense, leading to the adoption of similar actions. Hume argues that this sentiment is universal because everyone has the feeling of benevolence. If an action limits humanity, it is wrong; if it promotes humanity, it is good.
Sympathy as a Foundation of Ethics
According to Hume, all humans have the ability to empathize with others, which he calls sympathy. This sentiment overcomes relativism, as all human actions are approved as good when they evoke feelings of sympathy and benevolence. Hume’s ethics propose a framework for determining whether our actions are moral.
Utility and Moral Approval
For Hume, an action is good if it maximizes utility, meaning it produces beneficial consequences for society. Thus, moral approval arises from benevolence and the usefulness of actions. A moral action is approved because it is kind and beneficial for humanity.
The Role of Reason in Morality
Hume argues that moral actions depend on the consequences of actions, while for Kant, the morality of actions is based on intentions. Hume states, “A feeling manifests to give preference to useful trends.” This feeling is rooted in the happiness of mankind. Reason helps us understand the various tendencies of actions, while humanitarian sentiment distinguishes those that are useful and beneficial.
Conclusion: Hume’s Moral Theory
Ultimately, Hume’s moral theory posits that man pursues an ultimate aim: to avoid pain and seek pleasure. Pleasure and the avoidance of pain are desirable in themselves.