David Hume’s Philosophy: Knowledge, Ethics, and Politics
Life of David Hume (1711-1776)
The Scottish philosopher David Hume was initially pressured by his family to study law. However, his passion for philosophy led him to France, where he studied with followers of Descartes. His philosophical inquiries led to a period of depression, and his writings were later deemed atheistic, barring him from university positions. Despite these challenges, Hume made significant contributions to philosophy and wrote a history of England.
Influences and Concerns
Newton’s Influence
Hume was influenced by Newton’s emphasis on observation and experimental reasoning in understanding the physical world.
Scope and Limits of Knowledge
Hume sought to distinguish between areas of religion and science, arguing that knowledge should be based solely on experience, unlike Plato and Descartes, who believed in innate ideas.
Hume’s Theory of Knowledge
Perceptions
Hume defined perceptions as any mental content, divided into:
1. Impressions: Immediate experiences, including:
a) Sensations: Data from external senses (taste, touch, sight).
b) Passions and Emotions: Internal feelings.
2. Thoughts: Reflections on impressions, considered weaker copies.
Impressions and ideas can be simple or complex. Simple perceptions combine to form complex ones (e.g., the idea of an apple from impressions of roundness, greenness, and taste).
Association of Ideas
Hume proposed three laws governing the association of ideas:
1. Law of Similarity: Similar ideas are easily associated.
2. Law of Contiguity: Ideas occurring close in space or time are linked.
3. Law of Cause and Effect: Events consistently occurring together are connected.
Types of Knowledge
Hume recognized two types of knowledge:
A) Relations of Ideas: Found in mathematics, based on logical deduction, and independent of experience.
B) Matters of Fact: Based on cause and effect, derived from experience, and not demonstrably certain.
Metaphysics
Hume critiqued three key metaphysical concepts:
a) Existence of the External World: We infer existence from perceptions, not innate ideas.
b) Existence of God: Cannot be proven through causality, as causality itself is questioned.
c) Identity of the Self: The self is a collection of perceptions, not a fixed entity.
Ethics
Hume argued that moral judgments are based on feelings of approval or disapproval, not reason. Actions are approved based on their utility, promoting the greatest happiness.
Politics
Hume believed the purpose of politics is to achieve social harmony and individual happiness through:
a) Maintaining Order: Ensuring security and justice.
b) Regulating Property: Protecting private property as a result of labor.
Order is assured through just laws based on democratic principles. Property is secured through agreements and regulations.
Rationalism vs. Empiricism
Commonalities:
1. Knowledge involves ideas.
2. Both explore the origin of ideas.
Differences:
a) Source of Knowledge:
Empiricism: Knowledge comes from experience.
Rationalism: Knowledge involves innate ideas.
b) Limitation of Reason:
Empiricism: Reason is limited by experience, leading to skepticism.
Rationalism: Reason, guided by a good method, has unlimited potential.