Decline of Old Regime & Rise of Liberal Revolutions
UNIT II: The Crisis of the Old Regime
1. The Old Regime Features
This era, preceding the French and American Revolutions, is termed the Old Regime, characterized by specific societal structures.
1.1 Economy
Predominantly agricultural, with land ownership concentrated among clergy and nobility. Eastern Europe saw serfdom, while Western Europe had peasants with obligations to landowners, the Church, and the state. Crafts and trade employed few.
1.2 Society
Society was divided into estates with distinct functions: nobility (military), clergy (spiritual), and peasants (labor). Nobility and clergy held privileges, including judicial and land advantages. The Third Estate comprised the middle and lower classes.
1.3 Politics
Absolute monarchies prevailed, with power centralized in the king, accountable only to God. This system existed in Spain, France, Prussia, and Sweden, while Britain had a parliamentary monarchy.
The Enlightenment
2.1 Concept
The Enlightenment applied scientific methods to analyze society, critiquing the Old Regime. Enlightenment thinkers, or philosophes, emphasized reason, progress, natural law, and happiness, laying the groundwork for modern society.
2.2 Enlightenment Thought
Economic Criticism: Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776) advocated economic liberalism, opposing state intervention and promoting free markets. The state’s role was to remove barriers to economic freedom.
Socio-Political Critique: Advocated separation of powers, individual rights, and popular sovereignty. Thinkers like Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau challenged absolutism and the Church’s authority.
Enlightenment ideas spread through the Encyclopédie, salons, and the press.
2.3 Enlightened Despotism
This system combined absolute monarchy with reforms inspired by Enlightenment ideals. Rulers like Charles III of Spain, Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine II of Russia, and Joseph II of Austria implemented limited reforms, aiming to benefit the people without relinquishing power. However, these reforms often fell short, leading to revolutionary pressures.
The Liberal Revolutions in the 18th Century
3.1 Concept
Between 1770-1848, revolutions known as Atlantic, bourgeois, or liberal revolutions challenged the Old Regime. Inspired by the Enlightenment, these revolutions sought to establish liberal political systems.
Political System: Liberalism opposed absolutism, advocating separation of powers, political parties, elections, and constitutional rights.
Social Sphere: The revolutions led to a class society based on wealth, replacing privileged estates with legal equality.
Economic Sphere: Economic liberalism promoted free enterprise and reduced government intervention.
3.2 The American Revolution
Thirteen British colonies in North America revolted against British rule, seeking independence and a republican government. Causes included political dependence, economic grievances, social differences, ideological influences, and regional disputes. The war (1775-1783) led to American independence, recognized by the Treaty of Paris (1783). A new constitution established a federal republic based on Enlightenment principles.
3.3 The French Revolution
France faced economic and social crises, leading to revolution. Grievances included financial deficits, rising prices, and discontent among all social groups. Key events included the convocation of the Estates-General, the formation of the National Assembly, and the storming of the Bastille. The revolution transitioned through phases, including the constitutional monarchy, the Republic, and the Reign of Terror.
Major Events (1758-1789):
– Financial crisis and attempts at reform.
– Convocation of the Estates-General.
– Formation of the National Assembly.
– Popular revolts and the storming of the Bastille.