Decolonization and the Rise of the Third World: A Historical Overview
Seeds of Independence: The Determining Factors
The Second World War exposed the vulnerabilities of the major colonial powers: Britain, France, and the Netherlands. The Allies’ promotion of freedom and democracy against the Nazis fueled independence movements in colonized nations, who sought the application of these principles to themselves. The values championed by anti-fascism were fundamentally at odds with colonialism. In this context, the Socialist International Congress in Paris advocated for independence. Nationalist movements in the colonies had secured promises of liberation in exchange for their participation or neutrality in the conflict. However, at the war’s end, the colonial powers aimed to restore the pre-1939 status quo. Another crucial factor in the drive for independence was the stance of the two superpowers, the United States and the USSR, both of whom opposed traditional colonialism, seeking to expand their spheres of influence at the expense of the former colonial empires. In 1955, the U.S. Congress declared: “The United States must assist peoples in their efforts to achieve self-government or independence.” The UN also adopted a pro-independence position, and public opinion in developed countries increasingly favored independence.
The Emergence of the Third World
From the mid-twentieth century, newly independent states, recognizing their vulnerability compared to the former colonial powers, united to form a common front against colonialism. The economies of these new nations remained under the control of former colonial powers or U.S. interests. The existence of arbitrary borders, drawn by the old powers, contributed to political instability in the new nations, leading to numerous tribal conflicts, which were exploited by the colonial powers to maintain their presence in former colonies. The first expressions of solidarity among Third World countries emerged with the Asian conference in New Delhi, where the dangers of U.S. aid were denounced and the Netherlands’ policy in Indonesia was condemned. An Afro-Asian bloc, comprising independent states, was formed within the UN, typically voting against the colonial powers.
The most significant collective action was the Bandung Conference. The conference’s resolution affirmed the right of peoples to self-determination, the equality of races and nations, and the rejection of interference in the internal affairs of other states. It condemned colonialism, spheres of influence, and advocated for disarmament and a ban on atomic weapons. By 1955, just a decade after the Second World War, the decolonization of Asia was nearly complete, and the process was underway in Africa, marking the end of colonial empires.
Poverty and Uneven Development
During the latter half of the twentieth century, it became evident that poverty was concentrated in formerly colonized regions. The criteria for classifying Third World countries included low per capita income, high population growth rates, mortality and illiteracy rates, malnutrition, and the dominance of the private sector. Political corruption, military coups, and challenges to democratization also characterized the Third World. Sub-Saharan Africa exhibits the most severe manifestations of the old Third World.
Asia Awakened by China’s Colonial Past and the New Nationalism
From the late nineteenth century, Europeans had established themselves in ports and strategic locations in China through favorable trade agreements. Foreigners were not subject to Chinese authority, and the profits generated in Chinese enclaves were not reinvested in the country but exported to European cities. In the early twentieth century, Sun Yat-sen successfully united various groups and founded the People’s Party. This organization had three primary objectives: liberation from foreign economic domination, improvement of the living conditions of the Chinese people through land reform, and the democratization of political life. In 1912, the Republic of China was proclaimed, with Pu Yi as its emperor. Sun Yat-sen, who briefly assumed the presidency, was soon ousted by the military. Mongolia and Tibet seized the opportunity presented by this turmoil to declare independence. Mao Zedong founded the Chinese Communist Party.
India: The Jewel in the British Crown
From the seventeenth century, the British East India Company established settlements in various Indian cities. In 1858, India became a British crown colony, governed by a viceroy. Its wealth and vastness earned it the moniker “the jewel in the crown.” The British colonial administration exploited the antagonism between Hindus and Muslims to maintain control over the colony.
During the first third of the twentieth century, the majority of the population consisted of peasants living under a feudal system. Industrialization was minimal. From 1918 onwards, the first trade unions and socialist parties emerged. Large cities were populated by a mass of small merchants and officials.