Decolonization: Processes, Stages, and Global Impact
Decolonization: Paths to Independence
According to M. Madridejos, peaceful decolonization involved alliances or understandings between colonial powers and indigenous leaders or bourgeoisies. However, some powers sought subtle ways to maintain dominance, a common approach in Black Africa. Colonial powers often exploited internal divisions to strengthen their position, as seen in the partition of India based on religious lines.
When popular movements demanded independence, guerrilla warfare or open conflict often ensued, as in Malaysia, Indochina, and Algeria. In conflict zones, colonial powers allied with conservative nationalists, sometimes supporting dictatorships, as in the Philippines, Vietnam, and South Korea.
Stages of Decolonization
During and after World War I, the Middle East and South Mediterranean territories were most affected. Opposition to European presence grew in Muslim countries, but internal disunity led to new forms of domination, like protectorates. Even independent nations like Iran, Afghanistan, and Turkey faced interference from Britain and France.
Post-World War II, decolonization accelerated globally, particularly in Asia, where nationalist groups and parties played a key role. J. Chesneaux highlights two trends: secret organizations like the Chinese Kuomintang and “committees of notables” like the Indian National Congress. These nationalist movements sought both independence and social transformation.
Japan’s imperialism and economic dominance influenced Asia, while China’s revolution spurred uprisings and the spread of communist ideas, though adapted to local contexts. In India, nationalism, pre-existing, intensified during World War I, coinciding with Gandhi’s activism. The Congress Party and the Muslim League, despite their differences, fueled the movement, ultimately leading to the creation of India and Pakistan.
Decolonization in Africa
European presence in Africa extended until after World War II, with most of the continent gaining independence by 1975. The process unfolded in three stages:
- 1945-1955: Initial nationalist movements and mass support.
- 1955-1962: Numerous countries achieved independence.
- 1962-1980: Consolidation of independence.
African decolonization, starting with Muslim countries, often incorporated socialist ideas, adapted to a humanist and religious context, termed the African variant.
Colonial Policies and Independence
The United Kingdom granted independence post-World War II, often within the Commonwealth framework. French Africa, based on assimilation, initially formed the French Union, but nationalist parties grew, leading to the French Community in 1958 and widespread independence by 1960.
Belgian Africa reluctantly began the process in the 1950s, granting independence to the Congo in 1960.
Late Decolonization
Spanish and Portuguese colonies: Spain changed its policy after joining the UN, granting autonomy or independence (Guinea in 1968), transferring territories (Ifni to Morocco in 1969), or ceding areas (Sahara in 1975). Portugal was the last European power to decolonize, with the Carnation Revolution in 1974 accelerating the process peacefully.