Democracy, Fascism, and the Road to World War II
The Triumph of Democracies After World War I
The Allied victory in World War I was seen as a triumph for parliamentary democracy. The authoritarian empires that collapsed were replaced by republics adopting Western democratic principles.
The Decline of Democracy in the 1920s
However, by 1922, democracy suffered a sharp slowdown in Central and Eastern Europe, and the Mediterranean region. Fascism rose in Italy, and crises occurred in Turkey, Poland, Bulgaria, Spain, and Portugal.
The Rise of Authoritarian Regimes in the 1930s
During the 1930s, the economic crisis further fueled authoritarianism. The discredit of democratic regimes, unable to solve the crisis, affected many countries, especially newly established democracies like Germany, Austria, and Spain.
The Rise of Fascism
Several factors contributed to the rise of fascism:
- A weak and unstable liberal state.
- A mass of frustrated people.
- Powerful proletarian and leftist movements.
- Nationalist resentment against the Treaty of Versailles.
Fascist regimes shared these characteristics:
- Based on a one-party system.
- Permanent mobilization of the masses.
- Cult of a charismatic leader.
- Aspiration to radically transform society through the creation of a new state.
- Support from the middle and lower-middle classes, with a powerful attraction for young people.
- Exaltation of violence and war, implying a desire for expansion.
Italian Fascism
Italian Fascism emerged because Italians who fought with the Allies felt cheated, as the peace treaties offered far less than promised. Demobilization, coupled with serious postwar economic problems, unemployment, and increased poverty, led much of the working class to revolutionary leftist political choices. Armed groups (Blackshirts) began to act against what they called the “red menace” (proletarian organizations).
On October 22, Mussolini ordered fascist groups to march on Rome. Once in power, Mussolini cleverly used coercion and violence to transform the Italian system into a one-party dictatorship. The fascist state’s repression was not as brutal as Hitler’s, and some characteristic features of the Nazi regime were absent in Italy until a later stage.
The Road to War
This period was dominated by the expansionist ambitions of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Western democracies initially adopted a policy of appeasement, giving in to Hitler and Mussolini’s demands to avoid conflict. Hitler annexed Austria and then turned against Czechoslovakia, demanding the Sudetenland.
The Munich Agreement saw signatories accept the incorporation of the Sudetenland into the Reich. A few months later, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia, further demonstrating his expansionist aims. France and Britain guaranteed the integrity of Poland. On September 1, Hitler invaded Poland, and France and Britain declared war, marking the beginning of World War II.
Italy signed the Pact of Steel, an offensive and defensive alliance, in May 1939. In August, Germany signed a non-aggression pact with Russia.